A comparative study of the police code of silence

2019 ◽  
Vol 43 (2) ◽  
pp. 285-298 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sanja Kutnjak Ivković ◽  
Maria Haberfeld ◽  
Wook Kang ◽  
Robert Patrick Peacock ◽  
Louise E. Porter ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Online Survey ◽  
Peer Pressure ◽  
Organizational Factors ◽  
Peer Culture ◽  
Convenience Sample ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Code Of Silence ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Willingness To Report

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the contours of the police code of silence, a critical component of the ability to control misconduct and enhance integrity within any police agency. Unlike the extant research, dominated by single-country studies, this paper provides an in-depth exploration of the code across five countries and tests the relation between the code of science and societal characteristics. Design/methodology/approach A police integrity survey was used to measure the contours of the code of silence among police officers in Australia (n=856), Croatia (n=966), South Africa (n=871), South Korea (n=379) and the USA (n=664). The respondents evaluated 11 hypothetical scenarios describing various forms of police misconduct. Findings Bivariate analyses reveal considerable divergence in the code of silence across the five countries. Multivariate models of the code of silence show that, next to organizational factors (i.e. the respondents’ assessment of peers’ willingness to report, evaluations of misconduct seriousness and expected discipline) and individual factors (i.e. supervisory status), societal factors (i.e. the Corruption Perceptions Index score and the percent of irreligious citizens) are significant predictors of the respondents’ willingness to report. Research limitations/implications While the same questionnaire was used in all five countries, the nature of the data collection differed somewhat across the countries (e.g. online survey vs paper-and-pencil survey), as did the nature of the samples (e.g. representative sample vs convenience sample). Practical implications Perceived peer pressure, measured as the perceptions of whether other police officers would adhere to the code of silence, is the key variable explaining the police officers’ expressed willingness to adhere to the code of silence. Changing the police officers’ perceptions of peer culture and potentially changing the peer culture itself should be critical elements in the toolbox of any administrator willing to curtail the code of silence. Originality/value Whereas the study of the code of silence has started several decades ago, no prior study has tested the effects of organizational and societal variables on the code of silence in a comparative perspective.

Does discipline fairness matter for the police code of silence? Answers from the US supervisors and line officers

2016 ◽  
Vol 39 (2) ◽  
pp. 354-369 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sanja Kutnjak Ivković ◽  
Robert Peacock ◽  
Maria Haberfeld
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Empirical Studies ◽  
Police Misconduct ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Code Of Silence ◽  
Police Supervisors ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Willingness To Report ◽  
Police Integrity ◽  
Line Officers

Purpose – Following the theoretical model of reporting and disciplinary fairness developed by Kutnjak Ivković and Klockars (1998), the purpose of this paper is to use a survey of US police officers to explore empirically the contours of the code of silence and the potential relation between the code and perceptions of disciplinary fairness. Design/methodology/approach – In 2013-2014, a police integrity survey was used to measure the contours of police integrity among 604 police officers from 11 police agencies located in the Midwest and on the East Coast of the USA. The questionnaire contains descriptions of 11 scenarios describing various forms of police misconduct, followed by seven questions measuring officer views of scenario seriousness, the appropriate and expected discipline, and willingness to report misconduct. Findings – The results point out that the code of silence varies greatly across the scenarios, both for supervisors and line officers. While the supervisor code and the line officer code differ substantially, they are the most similar for the scenarios evaluated as the most serious. Compared to the respondents who evaluated expected discipline as fair, the respondents who evaluated it as too harsh were more likely to say that they would adhere to the code. On the other hand, compared to the respondents who evaluated discipline as fair, the respondents who evaluate the expected discipline as too lenient were as likely to adhere to the code. Research limitations/implications – The data were collected online, resulting in a lower response rates those typical of traditional paper surveys. Practical implications – The results of the research allow police supervisors interested in the controlling the code of silence to assess where the code is the weakest and easiest to break. Furthermore, the findings suggest to the supervisors who want to curtail the code that the strategy of meting out discipline perceived by line officers as too harsh will potentially only strengthen the code. Originality/value – Whereas the study of the code of silence has started several decades ago, empirical studies exploring the relation between the code of silence and perceptions of disciplinary fairness are rare.

Police integrity in China

2018 ◽  
Vol 41 (5) ◽  
pp. 563-577 ◽  
Author(s):  
Guangzhen Wu ◽  
David A. Makin ◽  
Yongtao Li ◽  
Francis D. Boateng ◽  
Gassan Abess
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Excessive Force ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Code Of Silence ◽  
Official Policy ◽  
Service Training ◽  
Police System ◽  
Willingness To Report ◽  
Police Integrity ◽  
Chinese Police

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the contours of police integrity among Chinese police officers. Specifically, this study explores how Chinese police evaluate integrity based on official policy governing interactions, discipline governing infractions, views of seriousness, and willingness to inform when others engage in misconduct. Design/methodology/approach In total, 353 police officers were surveyed representing those attending in-service training program at a Chinese police university in May 2015. Questionnaires containing 11 scenarios describing police misbehaviors were distributed to officers during classes. Findings There was a strong correlation between officers’ perceptions of rule-violation, misconduct seriousness, discipline, and willingness to report. Additionally, preliminary results suggest there exists a code of silence among Chinese officers, and that Chinese officers hold a lenient attitude toward the use of excessive force. Research limitations/implications This study utilizes a convenient sample, which restricts the generalizability of the results. Practical implications The results indicate the existence of code of silence among Chinese officers and their lenient attitude toward the use of excessive force. Originality/value Although there has been a growing body of research examining police integrity in both western democracies and transitional societies, China as the largest developing nation in the world and with a unique police system (falls somewhere between the centralized model and the integrated model) is understudied. This study addresses this gap in previous literature by exploring the contours of police integrity among Chinese police officers.

The code of silence and female police officers in Slovenia

2016 ◽  
Vol 39 (2) ◽  
pp. 387-400 ◽  
Author(s):  
Branko Lobnikar ◽  
Kaja Prislan ◽  
Barbara Čuvan ◽  
Gorazd Meško
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Police Misconduct ◽  
Police Chiefs ◽  
Police Corruption ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Code Of Silence ◽  
Female Police Officers ◽  
Willingness To Report ◽  
Police Integrity

Purpose – For some time now, research conducted in the field of human behavior and criminology has pertained to the contemporary question as to whether there are any relevant differences between the genders regarding their integrity and opinions held and, if so, which of these lead to different behaviors. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether there are any gender differences in willingness to report police misconduct and if so, what is the nature of these differences. Design/methodology/approach – In spring 2011, the study was conducted on a representative sample of 408 frontline Slovenian police officers (87.3 percent were male and 12.7 percent were female). The assessment of the code of silence was conducted using the method developed by Klockars and Kutnjak Ivković (2004), and consisted of 14 hypothetical scenarios describing a range of various forms of police misconduct, from those that merely give the appearance of a conflict of interest, to incidents of bribery and theft. One of the questions explored in relation to the police code of silence was the police officer’s willingness to report misconduct. Findings – Authors discovered significant differences in 11 of the 14 analyzed cases on the willingness to report police misconduct. Interestingly, female police officers were less willing than their male colleagues to report different forms of police misconduct. Female police officers are less willing to report police corruption in seven cases e.g. shooting runaway suspect, supervisor abusing his/her power, excessive force – punching a suspect, falsification of evidence, supervisor not prevent beating a suspect, police officer take bribes, and doing nothing when juveniles paint graffiti. The results were further analyzed from the group dynamic in Slovenian police point of view. The survey findings could be useful for police chiefs, leaders, and managers who want to achieve the main objective of every modern police organization: to prevent corruption and increase social responsibility. Originality/value – The study analyzes, comprehensively and originally, whether the female police officers differ from their male colleagues in the level of police integrity and willingness to report the cases of police corruption and/or other forms of police misbehavior.

Mobile payments adoption by US consumers: an extended TAM

2017 ◽  
Vol 45 (6) ◽  
pp. 626-640 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ainsworth Anthony Bailey ◽  
Iryna Pentina ◽  
Aditya Shankar Mishra ◽  
Mohammed Slim Ben Mimoun
Keyword(s):  
Self Efficacy ◽  
Online Survey ◽  
New Technology ◽  
Ease Of Use ◽  
Perceived Usefulness ◽  
Convenience Sample ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Privacy Concerns ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Technology Anxiety

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to incorporate mobile payment (MP) self-efficacy, new technology anxiety, and MP privacy concerns into the basic TAM to explore MP adoption, particularly tap-and-go payment, among US consumers. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected through an online survey conducted among students at a Midwestern University in the USA. A total of 254 participants provided 240 useable responses. Findings MP self-efficacy significantly impacts perceived ease of use (PEOUMP) and perceived usefulness of MP (PUMP). These in turn impact MP attitude, which affects intention to use MP. Privacy concerns also impact attitude towards MP and MP use intention. New technology anxiety impacts PEOUMP, but not PUMP. Research limitations/implications The study uses a convenience sample of young US consumers, which could limit the generalisability of the results. The study is also limited to tap-and-go payment. Practical implications US retailers have information on some of the factors that encourage MP adoption. Retailers need to address self-efficacy concerns, MP privacy concerns, and consumers’ perceptions of usefulness of the technology. Originality/value There has been little research on factors impacting tap-and-go payment adoption in the USA. The study highlights the roles of self-efficacy and privacy concerns. It focusses on tap-and-go payment, since this technology can enhance consumers’ retail experience.

Police integrity in South Korea

2012 ◽  
Vol 35 (1) ◽  
pp. 76-103 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sanja Kutnjak Ivković ◽  
Wook Kang
Keyword(s):  
South Korea ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Police Misconduct ◽  
Excessive Force ◽  
Convenience Sample ◽  
Content Type ◽  
South Korean ◽  
Code Of Silence ◽  
Korean Police Officers ◽  
Police Integrity

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the contours of police integrity among Korean police officers a decade after police reform was started.Design/methodology/approachThe data were collected in 2009 at the Korean National Police University (KNPU) and the Police Comprehensive Academy (PCA). The questionnaires distributed to police officers contained 14 vignettes describing various forms of police misconduct. The sample consists of 329 police officers, mostly non‐supervisors, attending courses at the KNPU and PCA.FindingsResults indicate that the contours of police integrity vary across different forms of misconduct. Regardless of whether the respondents' views were measured through questions about misconduct seriousness, appropriate discipline, willingness to report, or knowledge about official rules, the findings suggest that Korean police officers perceived corruption as a serious form of police misconduct, while they considered the use of excessive force to be substantially less serious. In addition, a strong code of silence among the police was detected.Research limitations/implicationsThe study examines the contours of police integrity among a convenience sample of police officers from South Korea.Practical implicationsThe Korean police administrators interested in controlling police misconduct could utilize this methodology to explore the contours of the code of silence among the Korean police. The results of the study indicate that substantial focus should be put on changing police officer views about the use of excessive force and narrowing the code of silence in general.Social implicationsThe results show that the contours of police integrity among South Korean police officers clearly reflect the attitudes and views of the society at large toward corruption and use of excessive force. The lenient attitudes that South Korean police officers have expressed regarding the use of excessive force reflect both the historical attitudes and the lack of clarity of official rules. The strong code of silence is related to the insufficient protection for whistleblowers and the adherence to Confucianism among Korean citizens.Originality/valuePrior research predominantly measured police integrity as the opposite of police corruption in Western democracies and East European countries in transition. This research expands this by focusing on different forms of police misconduct. In addition, it explores integrity in an Asian democracy with the police agency undergoing extensive reform.

scholarly journals Using force: experiences of Belgian police officers

2017 ◽  
Vol 40 (2) ◽  
pp. 278-290 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jannie Noppe ◽  
Antoinette Verhage
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Online Survey ◽  
Use Of Force ◽  
Physical Force ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Individual Coaching ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Survey Results ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Insight Into

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to gain insight into the type of force that is most frequently used by Belgian police officers in their daily activities, and to examine the individual and contextual triggers that result in using force. Design/methodology/approach First, the results of an online survey of police officers in three Belgian local police zones are presented. Second, qualitative data are used to gain more insight into the factors, individual as well as contextual, that influence the decision to use force. Findings The survey results indicate that the officers in the sample rarely use force. When force is used, the type of force used is typically situated on the lower end of the continuum (verbal and physical force without a weapon). The interview data suggest that suspect resistance, the behaviour of the suspect in general and the character and personality of the police officer have an influence on the use of force. Practical implications The authors conclude that police officers should be provided not only with training on typical situations, but also with training to handle unpredictable cases, as well as individual coaching and aftercare. Increased transparency and reporting of the use of force and evolutions thereof could provide basic information to develop training, coaching and aftercare. Originality/value Although there has been plenty of academic attention given to the factors that determine proper use of force by the police, most research in this field is based on police experiences abroad (such as in the USA).

The code of silence and ethical perceptions

2016 ◽  
Vol 39 (2) ◽  
pp. 370-386 ◽  
Author(s):  
Louise E Porter ◽  
Tim Prenzler
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Design Methodology ◽  
Police Misconduct ◽  
Ethical Perceptions ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Unethical Conduct ◽  
Code Of Silence ◽  
Ethical Decisions ◽  
Willingness To Report ◽  
Practical Implications

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore Australian police officers’ perceptions of unethical conduct scenarios with the aim of understanding unwillingness to report infractions. Design/methodology/approach – The responses of 845 officers were compared across 11 scenarios to explore variation in the extent to which they understood the behaviour to violate policy and their hypothetical willingness, or unwillingness, to report the behaviour. Particularly, it was hypothesised that non-reporters may justify their inaction based on the misperception that other officers hold even less ethical beliefs. Findings – Five scenarios emerged as least likely to be reported, with a substantial minority of officers stating their decision was despite their understanding that the behaviour constituted a policy violation. Contrary to predictions, these “non-reporters” were aware they were less likely to report than their colleagues, but believed they held the same views as their colleagues in terms of the seriousness of scenarios. Comparisons between non-reporters and other survey participants, however, found this belief to be false, with non-reporters viewing the scenarios as significantly less serious. A perceived self-other difference, along with a belief that others will report were shown to reduce the likelihood of not reporting. Practical implications – The results are discussed in terms of increasing willingness to report misconduct through organisational efforts to communicate values and support officers to make ethical decisions. Originality/value – The paper contributes to understanding the “code of silence” in perpetuating police misconduct and how it may be reduced.

Crafting employee trust: from authenticity, transparency to engagement

2018 ◽  
Vol 22 (2) ◽  
pp. 138-160 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hua Jiang ◽  
Yi Luo
Keyword(s):  
Organizational Communication ◽  
Employee Engagement ◽  
Authentic Leadership ◽  
Online Survey ◽  
Organizational Factors ◽  
Organizational Leaders ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Employee Trust ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Industry Sectors

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to propose and test a model examining how three influential organizational factors – authentic leadership, transparent organizational communication, and employee engagement – are linked to employee trust. Design/methodology/approach This study conducted an online survey on a random sample of 391 employees across different industry sectors in the USA. Findings Authentic leadership, transparent organizational communication, and employee engagement directly and significantly influenced the level of trust that employees have toward their organizations. Authentic leadership indirectly impacted employee engagement through transparent organizational communication. Authentic leadership also indirectly affected employee trust via the presence of transparent organizational communication and employee engagement. Practical implications The study informs communication managers and organizational leaders with the importance of integrating authentic leadership and transparent communication skills, strategies, and tactics in various training and mentoring workshops. Creating a motivating, nurturing, and transparent organizational environment contributes to employee engagement and trust. Originality/value This study examines the drivers of employee trust by testing the effects of employee engagement, authentic leadership, and transparent organizational communication.

Teen girls’ adoption of a virtual fashion world

2016 ◽  
Vol 17 (4) ◽  
pp. 419-432 ◽  
Author(s):  
Caroline Kobia ◽  
Chuanlan Liu
Keyword(s):  
Virtual Worlds ◽  
Structural Equation ◽  
Online Survey ◽  
Peer Pressure ◽  
Equation Modeling ◽  
Convenience Sample ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Adoption Of Innovations ◽  
Female Consumers ◽  
Individual Variables

Purpose The purpose of this study was to improve our understanding of teen consumers’ adoption of virtual fashion. Specifically, the study assessed the effects of individual variables, including fashion innovativeness and peer pressure, on needs gratification, attitudes and adoption of virtual fashion worlds (VFWs) among teen girl consumers. Design/methodology/approach An online survey was designed and administered to a convenience sample of female teens. Empirical analyses were performed on 177 valid responses. Structural equation modeling was used to test all hypotheses. Findings The results revealed that adoption of VFWs in the sample was affected significantly by teen female consumers’ needs gratification, attitudes about VFWs and fashion innovativeness. However, peer pressure had no effects. Originality/value The emergence of different types of virtual worlds has influenced the way in which business is conducted, and VFWs are a popular trend. However, no studies have examined consumers’ adoption of VFWs that promote fashion using avatars and offer similar styles for teens in the real world. The study adds to existing literature related to consumers’ adoption of innovations by integrating communication, sociological and innovation adoption theories.

Assessing university police officers’ uniforms and wearing experiences

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Brooke Brandewie ◽  
Injoo Kim ◽  
Myoung-Ok Kim
Keyword(s):  
Police Officers ◽  
Design Methodology ◽  
Uniform Design ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Specific Performance ◽  
The Usa ◽  
Emotional Aspects ◽  
Municipal Police ◽  
The University

Purpose This study aims to suggest opportunities for enhancing the police uniform design with consideration to the emotional and physical satisfaction of the wearers, by assessing the wearing experience. Design/methodology/approach University police officers at a University in the Midwestern region of the USA were surveyed to examine both psychological and emotional aspects including performance, comfort, professionalism and empowerment, as well as their satisfaction levels with fit, fabrics, aesthetics and functionality. Findings The study found that the wearing experience was poor, and not surprisingly, fabric satisfaction ranked the lowest of all factors. In regard to color, results showed that the uniforms should be in colors that are suitable to the university context, which in this case the wearers preferred the University athletic colors of black and red. It is easier to consider these colors, as they are a part of their organization and also enable the police to stand apart from municipal police, contrary to previous research demonstrating dark colors have negative connotations. Findings suggest that the university police uniform should have an athletic style with a regular fit, using specific performance fabrics that allow for stretch and breathability. Originality/value This study assesses the police uniform design and wearing experience and suggests design details to enhance how well officers physically perform in their role and also to inspire them to feel proud of their job and organization.

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