“Those that are Cooking the Gins”: The Business of Ogogoro in Nigeria during the 1930s

2008 ◽  
Vol 35 (4) ◽  
pp. 573-609 ◽  
Author(s):  
Simon Heap
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Import Substitution ◽  
Alcoholic Beverages ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Local Market ◽  
Colonial State ◽  
Know How ◽  
British Colony ◽  
The 19Th Century

Southern Nigerians developed a habit for drinking potent distilled liquor during the 19th century. Such alcoholic beverages were manufactured in Europe and exported to the British colony of Nigeria. Nigerians did not know how to distil alcohol themselves. In the 1930s, however, the technology of alcohol distillation swept the colony, as Nigerians made drinks comparable to imported spirits: ogogoro. Ogogoro made serious headway against the long-standing imported liquor trade. The article reconstructs the extensive small-scale indigenous business of distilling. A sugar index measures the scale of the industry. Distillers succeeded in supplying the local market thirsty for strong drink with a potent, cheap product. For the colonialists, such import substitution proved problematic, as an untaxed, unlicensed product displaced a revenue-earning, highly regulated, legal trade. Condemning the locally distilled liquor as illicit gin, they battled distillers with instruments of the colonial state: by propaganda, through the courts and with police raids.

Muslim Pilgrimage Traditions in West Africa

2021 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
West Africa ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
West African ◽  
Technological Innovations ◽  
African Origin ◽  
Colonial State ◽  
Structure Control ◽  
Sources Of Knowledge ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Specific Health

The hajj, or greater pilgrimage to Mecca, is required of every able-bodied and financially capable Muslim at least once in their lifetime. As such, it comes as no surprise that wherever Islam spreads, a pilgrimage tradition also emerges. In line with this reality, records of the first West African conversions to Islam contain indications about their pilgrimage journeys. Early Arab sources about pilgrims to Mecca notably contain references to al-Barnawi and al-Takruri, pilgrims from the Kingdoms of Borno and Takrur (11th century). It is, however, important to note that, because of the generic use of the appellation “Takarir” in these early sources to refer to pilgrims of West African origin, it is not always possible to ascertain their exact provenance. Royal pilgrims from the kingdoms of Borno and Takrur, as well as from the Kingdom of Mali, feature prominently in the existing literature on West African pilgrims to Mecca. Up to the end of the 19th century, pilgrimages were undertaken for three main interwoven reasons: piety, trade, and the search for knowledge. One could add for diplomatic reasons, particularly in the case of royal pilgrimages, as well as credentialing reasons for scholars seeking to establish their credibility. At the turn of the 20th century, the advent of the colonial state and technological innovations led to major changes in this pilgrimage tradition. A journey hitherto done on foot or camelback could now be undertaken by steamboat and, subsequently, by plane. In addition, technological innovations brought about the democratization of sources of knowledge, making the search for knowledge a far less salient objective of pilgrims to Mecca. The advent of the colonial state also brought about a structure (control) over the organization of pilgrimages hitherto absent. Requiring a travel document and having specific health requirements (immunization) led to a limitation on the number of those who could undertake the journey any given year. This limitation would later be a contributing factor in the rise to prominence of local pilgrimage (ziyara) practices. Toward the end of the 19th century, several charismatic Sufi figures emerged in West Africa. Today, their mausoleums have become important Sufi shrines, engendering a rich tradition of pious visitation or ziyara. Some of the most prominent of these “pious visitations” take place in present-day Senegal and in northern Nigeria, bringing together millions of pilgrims from the subregion and the diaspora. As such, paying attention to Islamic pilgrimage traditions in West Africa, both hajj and ziyara, can yield germane insights into some of the forces shaping the practice of Islam in the region.

History, Politics, and Culture in the Highlands of Northeastern Tanzania

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
N. Thomas Håkansson
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Political Power ◽  
Large Family ◽  
The Political ◽  
Political Strategies ◽  
Colonial State ◽  
Northern Tanzania ◽  
And Shifts ◽  
The 19Th Century

The Pangani Valley region in northern Tanzania is dominated by an arc of highlands that stretch from Usambara to Arusha. In this region, ecotonal variations in environments have shaped—and were in turn shaped by—cultural, political, and economic forces. Since the early 18th century three major events and shifts in regional and world systems dynamics affected significant economic and political changes on the highlands. First, the international ivory and slave trade increased in volume and organization; second, this led to an expansion of specialized pastoralism through an increased availability of cattle in the region; and third, at the end of the 19th century the region was included into a colonial state. The populations of the highlands were all organized into patrilineages and patriclans. Sometime in the late 1600s or early 1700s, several of the kinship-based, highland communities developed into chiefdoms of varying sizes and degrees of stratification. The ability of a chief to maintain a rudimentary administration and political power depended on the possession of wealth in the form of livestock, rights in persons, and rights in land. A part of household production in the form of crops, livestock, and beer was transmitted from farmers to chiefs as tribute. The most valued part of the tribute was cattle, which the chief needed to build a large family, to obtain debt-clients, and as gifts to lineage heads and the young men who served as warriors. Thus, the political cohesiveness of chiefdoms was ultimately contingent on the chiefs’ abilities to control the flow of cattle and to supply these to local lineage heads and subchiefs. The political strategies that maintained stratification in the highlands varied between the different areas. On Kilimanjaro, politics among the Chagga was based on marriage arrangements, while in North Pare it was control of land and irrigation that were used for political purposes, and in South Pare and Usambara control over rain-making rituals provided the cultural justification for the centralization of power. Cattle were the main resource for implementing culturally defined political strategies. Their importance was exacerbated during the 19th century when increased political turmoil caused by participation in the coastal trade opened new avenues for access to wealth outside the kinship-based networks. As a result, new actors entered into competition for cattle and political power that resulted in increased tribute demands, as well as raiding and warfare.

1. The roots of biochemistry

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-23
Author(s):  
Mark Lorch
Keyword(s):  
Nucleic Acids ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Structural Biology ◽  
Ribonucleic Acid ◽  
Alcoholic Beverages ◽  
X Ray ◽  
X Ray Crystallography ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century

This chapter traces the history of biochemistry, which is linked to the understanding of arguably the oldest uses of biotechnology—fermentation and the production of alcoholic beverages and cheese. In the 19th century, at the same time as the fermentation debates and enzymology flourished, the nature of proteins was under scrutiny. The chapter then considers the contribution that X-ray crystallography has made to structural biology. By the mid-20th century, the structures of the two massive molecular players, protein and nucleic acids (DNA along with ribonucleic acid), and their myriad roles were in place. It was becoming apparent that these were the fundamental molecular machines that marshal the chemistry within cells.

scholarly journals Cäsar Adolf Bloesch – ein Geburtshelfer? Einblicke in seine ärztliche Praxis zwischen 1832 und 1850

Gesnerus ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 69 (1) ◽  
pp. 110-125
Author(s):  
Philipp Klaas
Keyword(s):  
General Practice ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Local Market ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Town ◽  
Extensive Practice

This article contributes to the history of obstetrics as it was performed in the context of general practice during the 19th century. It focuses on the Swiss physician Cäsar Adolf Bloesch (1804–1863) from the town of Biel, Canton Bern. Drawing upon Bloesch’s extensive practice records, it raises the question whether this physician participated in the local market for obstetrical activities. Furthermore, the paper tries to make an estimate about the importance this field of action took for Bloesch’s practice. To achieve this, results of a smaller study about obstetrical cases within the practice records during the years 1832 to 1850 are being presented. I will argue that physicians like Bloesch were aware of the problems obstetrics brought with it, and as a consequence, he tried to limit it in favor of his general practice.

scholarly journals Trading in Air Bangis in the 19th Century

2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 51
Author(s):  
Junaidi Junaidi ◽  
Ratna Ratna
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
West Coast ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
The West ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
Trading Activities ◽  
High Level ◽  
Colonial Government ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Dutch Colonial

This study aims to explain trading activities at the Air Bangis harbor during the Dutch Colonial Government. Since the early 19th century, the Dutch Colonial Government had been more ambitious than before to utilize as much forest and agricultural products as possible in the hinterland of the West Coast of Sumatra. This intention was also supported by the improvement of the functions of harbor cities along the West Coast of Sumatra, including Air Bangis. The improvement per se had allowed a small-scale trade to be upgraded to export-oriented free harbors. The high level of trading activity in the Air Bangis harbor was made possible by its hinterland which is rich in export commodities. Among the types of the export commodities were gold, camphor, myrrh, rattan, dammar, coffee and pepper. The Air Bangis harbor had a role in lifting the spirits of the foreign nations, such as Aceh, VOC, English, and the Dutch Colonial Government, to build their influences in the harbor. The competition often caused friction which resulted in a conflict and power overtaking. The winners would take over the power from the losers, established their hegemony and monopolized the trade in the area of Air Bangis. The prosperity of the maritime activities in Air Bangis reached its peak in the first quarter of the 19th century, but it did not last long. In the last quarter of the 19th century, maritime activities in Air Bangis harbor started to decline. Nevertheless, sea voyage and trading activities in Air Bangis harbor had given a specific color to the maritime world in the West Sumatera Coast.

scholarly journals Infant Mortality in Germany in the 19th Century

2012 ◽  
Vol 36 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Rolf Gehrmann
Keyword(s):  
Infant Mortality ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Regional Patterns ◽  
Statistical Series ◽  
High Infant Mortality ◽  
Sustained Reduction ◽  
Preceding Period ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Impact

Developments in infant mortality in Germany have previously only been documented in a fragmentary fashion for the 19th century as a whole, and only on a small scale for the period prior to 1871. For the first time, this paper lays a solid statistical foundation by reprocessing the figures assembled by the German states of that time. The reconstructed national statistical series (from 1826 onwards) reveals a comparatively high infant mortality, with minor deviations until the turn of the 20th century. The impact of urbanisation and industrialisation is not denied, but an evaluation of the different regional patterns and trends leads to a new weighting. The living and working conditions in the countryside were thus highly determining. The relationship between fertility and infant mortality is assessed differently for the era of the sustained reduction in fertility than for the preceding period. All in all, the prevalent customs and attitudes are regarded as being vital to infants’ survival chances. We therefore need to look at attitudes among the educated public and the authorities. Efforts on the part of these groups to bring about change were particularly observed in the South West, where an awareness of the dramatic problem arose comparatively early. Further historic research at the regional level will be needed in order to achieve a final evaluation of these processes.

Literature and International Copyright after the Berne Convention (1886)

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sanna Nyqvist
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Conflicts Of Interest ◽  
International Standards ◽  
Minimum Length ◽  
Local Market ◽  
Berne Convention ◽  
Literary Works ◽  
Current Form ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Translated Literature

The gradual development of national copyright laws during the 18th and 19th centuries resulted in quite different and culture-specific understandings of the nature and scope of protection provided for literary and artistic works. The lack of international standards of regulation meant that literary works could be freely reprinted, translated, and appropriated abroad. As a result of the increasing internationalization of literature, bestselling authors of the 19th century began to call for a universal copyright. Their activism proved an important catalyst of the first international copyright treaty, the Berne Convention, signed in 1886 by ten nations. The Berne Convention has since been revised many times and is currently ratified by over 170 signatories. In its current form, it grants relatively strong rights to authors who produce works that can be categorized as “originals.” It determines the minimum standards of protection which bind the national legislation of its member states, for instance by setting the minimum length of copyright protection at fifty years from the death of the author. The development of international copyright agreements since the latter half of the 20th century has resulted in a network of mutually reinforcing treaties and an increased awareness and control of copyrights on a global scale. At the same time, such treaties and the national laws they govern can offer only partial solutions to the multiple conflicts of interest relating to the uses of literary works beyond their countries of origin. The main concerns of the 19th-century authors who lobbied for universal copyright are still relevant today, albeit in somewhat different forms. With the advances of technology that allow for effortless storing and distribution of works in digital form, and given the economic gap between content-producing industrialized countries and the less-developed countries that use that content, book piracy still exists and is often a symptom of a dysfunctional or exclusive local market environment. In addition to the abolition of piracy, another core concern for the Berne Convention was the regulation of translation rights. The treaty divides the copyright in translated works between authors of originals and translators, which challenges the notion of originality as the criterion for protection since translations are by necessity derivative. The division of authors into two groups meriting different types of protection is further complicated by the rise of the so-called “born-translated literature” which effectively blurs the distinction between originals and translations. The international framework of copyright has harmonized many aspects of copyright, yet left others unregulated: appropriations, such as parody, have proven problematic in an international setting due to differences in how national laws justify the existence of derivative and transformative works. International copyright thus remains an oxymoron: it is promulgated in and through national laws, and the disputes are settled in national courts although literature, especially translated literature, has multiple countries of origin and is increasingly distributed by international booksellers to a potentially global audience.

Social and Religious Reform in 19th-Century India

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
William Gould
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Political Representation ◽  
Religious Movements ◽  
Institution Building ◽  
Religious Revival ◽  
Trade Expansion ◽  
Colonial State ◽  
Religious Traditions ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Impact

The 19th century in India, and especially the last quarter, was a period in the development of what were to become India’s major new religious movements, with lasting significance into the century that followed, within India and beyond. Essential to these movements was the notion of social “reform” and its associated idea of religious revival. These twin concepts involved a range of debates about existing religious traditions for Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, the need to adapt them to social and political transformations, ideas about the “modern,” and institution building around education and social work. The very concept of community identity also underwent change, with the establishment, for example, of the idea of “Hinduism” as a world religion. The three main contexts to these debates were the formalization of the colonial state, the development of the socio-religious institution, and the impact of anti-colonial nationalism. The nature of colonial power in India shifted from trade expansion and conquest, to formal crown colony control over the course of the 19th century, and this had a profound impact on the nature of religious movements, ideas about reform, and social change. India’s main religious traditions confronted an array of challenges: direct, in the form of missionaries, and indirect, in the shape of new social and political ideas. Partly in response to these changes, an array of ideologues built new organizations that reshaped the institutional landscape of India. Finally many of the leaders and intellectual influences of these organizations became pivotal to debates about national belonging and political representation as the century came to a close.

scholarly journals Trading in Air Bangis in the 19th Century

2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 51
Author(s):  
Junaidi Junaidi ◽  
Ratna Ratna
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
West Coast ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
The West ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
Trading Activities ◽  
High Level ◽  
Colonial Government ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Dutch Colonial

This study aims to explain trading activities at the Air Bangis harbor during the Dutch Colonial Government. Since the early 19th century, the Dutch Colonial Government had been more ambitious than before to utilize as much forest and agricultural products as possible in the hinterland of the West Coast of Sumatra. This intention was also supported by the improvement of the functions of harbor cities along the West Coast of Sumatra, including Air Bangis. The improvement per se had allowed a small-scale trade to be upgraded to export-oriented free harbors. The high level of trading activity in the Air Bangis harbor was made possible by its hinterland which is rich in export commodities. Among the types of the export commodities were gold, camphor, myrrh, rattan, dammar, coffee and pepper. The Air Bangis harbor had a role in lifting the spirits of the foreign nations, such as Aceh, VOC, English, and the Dutch Colonial Government, to build their influences in the harbor. The competition often caused friction which resulted in a conflict and power overtaking. The winners would take over the power from the losers, established their hegemony and monopolized the trade in the area of Air Bangis. The prosperity of the maritime activities in Air Bangis reached its peak in the first quarter of the 19th century, but it did not last long. In the last quarter of the 19th century, maritime activities in Air Bangis harbor started to decline. Nevertheless, sea voyage and trading activities in Air Bangis harbor had given a specific color to the maritime world in the West Sumatera Coast.

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