Transformative copper metallurgy in Chalcolithic Cyprus: a reappraisal

The last three years of archaeological investigations at the site Ru`ana in Banjsko Polje, in the immediate vicinity of Bor, have provided new evidence regarding the role of non-ferrous metallurgy in the economy of the prehistoric communities of north-eastern Serbia. The remains of metallurgical furnaces and a large amount of metallic slags at two neighbouring sites in the mentioned settlement reveal that locations with many installations for the thermal processing of copper ore existed in the Bronze Age. We believe, judging by the finds of material culture, that metallurgical activities in this area also continued into the Iron Age and, possibly, into the 4th century AD.

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Some Ethnographic Aspects of the Ancient Copper-Bronze Tradition in India

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society ◽

10.1017/s1356186300004296 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 219-231 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Nayanjot Lahiri

Keyword(s):

Distribution Pattern ◽

Pure Copper ◽

Element Composition ◽

Positive Evidence ◽

Incomplete Knowledge ◽

Indian Context ◽

Copper Metallurgy

The alloying and distribution pattern of early Indian copper and copper-based artefacts and the occurrence of ingots in some archaeological contexts have been variously discussed in Indian archaeological literature. First, the presence of pure copper artefacts in early Indian archaeological contexts is considered to be symptomatic of the scarcity of alloying agents. For instance, D. P. Agrawal has argued that the presence of 70% of pure copper objects among the analysed Harappan artefacts in this metal is reflective of a problem in the procurement of tin; since this metallic ore was not easily available, evidence of copper alloying is scarce. Secondly, the variations in element composition of alloyed artefacts have generally been regarded as evidence of incomplete knowledge of mixing – E. J. H. Mackay's argument that “mixing of the two metals was performed in a most perfunctory manner ” to explain the variations in the average proportions of tin to copper in Mohenjodaro specimens is evocative of this general approach. Thirdly, not many sites which have yielded copper objects have yielded any positive evidence of manufacture – in some cases this may be due to the limited nature of the excavated data, but on the whole one would argue that the sites which can be described as centres of copper metallurgy are comparatively few and far between in the Indian context. Fourthly, the occurrence of copper ingots at different sites has been generally taken to be indicative of trade in this metal.

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Iberia and The Western Mediterranean

Prehistoric Copper Mining in Europe ◽

10.1093/oso/9780199605651.003.0009 ◽

2014 ◽

Author(s):

William O'Brien

Keyword(s):

New Technology ◽

Western Mediterranean ◽

Ore Deposits ◽

Northern Spain ◽

Metal Mining ◽

Copper Ore ◽

Copper Deposits ◽

History Of ◽

Copper Metallurgy ◽

The 1960S

The Iberian Peninsula is one the most mineralized parts of Europe, with a long history of metal mining from prehistoric and Roman to modern times. The earliest evidence for copper metallurgy dates to the fifth millennium BC; however, distinctive Chalcolithic metalworking traditions did not emerge in most regions until 3000 BC onwards. There are widespread occurrences of copper mineralization in Spain and Portugal, including many areas with deposits of lead, tin, silver, and gold. Copper deposits occur in the Galician and Cantabrian mountain ranges of northern Spain, extending east to the Pyrenees. They are also numerous in central Spain, in the provinces of Madrid, Avila, Salamanca, and Segovia in the Central Range, and also in the Toledo and Betic mountains of Cordoba. Farther south, there are major copper deposits in the so-called Pyrite Belt, extending from Seville to Huelva into southern Portugal, and also in the Penibetic range from Cartagena to Malaga crossing the sierras of Almeria (Rovira 2002: fig. 3c; see Delibes de Castro and Montero Ruiz 1999 for regional surveys of copper deposits and indications of early mining; also Gómez Ramos 1999; Hunt Ortiz 2003). The widespread availability of ore deposits was a significant factor in the establishment of copper metallurgy in Iberia. How early is contentious, as is the means by which the new technology first developed in different parts of the peninsula. The older explanation of metal-seeking colonists from the east Mediterranean introducing this technology to southern Spain was replaced in the 1960s by a model that emphasized autonomous development (Renfrew 1967, 1973; Montero Ruiz 1994). This was based on the apparent antiquity of copper mining and metallurgy in Iberia and the distinctive technological processes that developed there relative to other parts of Europe. The earliest indication of copper metallurgy in Iberia may come from the settlement of Cerro Virtud in Almeria, south-west Spain. A single sherd from a metallurgical crucible used to reduce oxidized copper ore was discovered in a layer dated to the early fifth millennium BC (Montero Ruiz and Ruíz Taboada 1996; Ruíz Taboada and Montero Ruiz 1999).

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Human and Environmental Impacts of Ancient Copper Metallurgy

Current Anthropology ◽

10.1086/706543 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 60 (6) ◽

pp. 840-848

Author(s):

Kyle A. Knabb

Keyword(s):

Environmental Impacts ◽

Copper Metallurgy

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Slag Cleaning Processes: A Growing Concern

Materials Science Forum ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.475-479.2745 ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 475-479 ◽

pp. 2745-2752 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

C.M. Acuna ◽

M. Sherrington

Keyword(s):

Matte Grade ◽

Copper Recovery ◽

New Approach ◽

Slag Cleaning ◽

Leaching Methods ◽

Copper Metallurgy ◽

Reduce Emissions ◽

Temperature Liquid ◽

Copper Losses ◽

Liquid Liquid Phase Separation

In the last two decades copper metallurgy has faced tough challenges to comply with environmental regulations and falling copper prices. Although in the last months copper price has increased, still the environmental issue and operation related costs remain and as long as foreseen they will continue to do so. To reduce emissions to the atmosphere and to shorten the converting cycle, most industrial processes, as well as emerging ones, are aiming at production of high matte grade. However, the increase in oxygen potential required by these processes results in highly oxidised slags with significant copper contents, which require their treatment for copper recovery. Despite the fact that long established slag cleaning processes perform reasonaby well for slags in the range 1.5% - 2.5% in copper, i.e. coexisting matte in the order 60% in copper content, they must be reconsidered when applying to slags equilibrating with high matte grades and/or white metal. The present study concentrates on the mechanism of copper losses into slags, its association to sulfur and oxygen, mainly, and methods for its recovery. Based on these considerations, high temperature liquid-liquid phase separation, i.e. Teniente type reactor, slag flotation and slag leaching methods technologies are discussed as specially applied in Chilean smelters. Also, a new approach based on material characteristics of both matte and slag, i.e. magnetic separation, is presented.

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Copper metallurgy at the crossroads

Journal of Mining and Metallurgy Section B Metallurgy ◽

10.2298/jmmb0701001h ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 43 (1) ◽

pp. 1-19 ◽

Cited By ~ 24

Author(s):

F. Habashi

Keyword(s):

Sulfuric Acid ◽

Elemental Sulfur ◽

Copper Production ◽

Pressure Leaching ◽

Copper Industry ◽

Hydrothermal Conditions ◽

The Past ◽

Copper Metallurgy ◽

Horizontal Furnace ◽

Sulfide Concentrates

Copper technology changed from the vertical to the horizontal furnace and from the roast reaction to converting towards the end of the last century. However, the horizontal furnace proved to be an inefficient and polluting reactor. As a result many attempts were made to replace it. In the past 50 years new successful melting processes were introduced on an industrial scale that were more energy efficient and less polluting. In addition, smelting and converting were conducted in a single reactor in which the concentrate was fed and the raw copper was produced. The standing problem in many countries, however, is marketing 3 tonnes of sulfuric acid per tonne of copper produced as well as emitting large amounts of excess SO2 in the atmosphere. Pressure hydrometallurgy offers the possibility of liberating the copper industry from SO2 problem. Heap leaching technology has become a gigantic operation. Combined with solvent extraction and electrowinning it contributes today to about 20% of copper production and is expected to grow. Pressure leaching offers the possibility of liberating the copper industry from SO2 problem. The technology is over hundred years old. It is applied for leaching a variety of ores and concentrates. Hydrothermal oxidation of sulfide concentrates has the enormous advantage of producing elemental sulfur, hence solving the SO2 and sulfuric acid problems found in smelters. Precipitation of metals such as nickel and cobalt under hydrothermal conditions has been used for over 50 years. It has the advantage of a compact plant but the disadvantage of producing ammonium sulfate as a co-product. In case of copper, however, precipitation takes place without the need of neutralizing the acid, which is a great advantage and could be an excellent substitute for electrowinning which is energy intensive and occupies extensive space. Recent advances in the engineering aspects of pressure equipment design open the door widely for increased application. .

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