Mining, Economy, and Society

The opening chapter of this book considered different factors that influenced the availability of copper resources in prehistory. While geological distribution and technological expertise were critical, consideration must also be given to the wider societal context of production. The operation of early mines must be explained in terms of access to ore deposits and the desire and ability of different population groups to become involved in primary metal production. The impact on local and regional economies is also relevant, in terms of wealth generation through trade and the repercussions for society as a whole. Understanding the organization of this activity is a challenge. Key elements of the chaîne opératoire are often missing, such as the location of smelting sites or the workshops where objects were made. This makes it difficult to establish links between mines and the circulation of intermediate and final metal products in a wider settlement context. With stone tools it is possible to apply production indices to quantify the different stages involved in the use of a specific raw material, with a view to modelling a lithic production system in space (see Ericson 1984). This approach cannot be easily applied to metal objects, which generally have a more complex life cycle than stone tools. This began with a fundamentally different use of a raw material to create a finished object, requiring chemical as well as physical transformation. For this reason, scientific analysis of prehistoric metalwork is problematic in terms of source provenancing to specific ore deposits and mines. There is the further complication of recycling, which in some instances involved the mixing of metal from different mine sources. One approach has been to identify metal circulation zones where copper of a similar chemistry, lead isotope signature, and/ or alloy type was used (e.g. Northover 1982). Within these circulation zones various patterns of primary and secondary (recycled) metal use can be explored in the context of local workshop traditions. This provides a spatial and typochronological context in which to view the input of metal from particular mines.

Mining, Community, and Environment

The previous chapters in this book have reviewed the extensive research carried out on prehistoric copper mines in Europe. Numerous site investigations provide detailed information on the geological setting of these mines and the types of ore minerals extracted. The same studies yield important insights into methods of rock extraction, ore beneficiation, and smelting, and the overall organization of those activities. Building on this solid base of information, it is possible to move beyond an understanding of mining as a technological process to an emphasis on the prehistoric communities involved. The technical details and logistics of the mining process continue to be important, but are now considered as part of a socially informed chaîne opératoire of early metal production. Mining in the modern era is regarded as an economic activity; however, there is also a distinctive character to the individuals and communities who engage in that work. This is also true of prehistoric mining, which was undertaken within specific historical contexts that were structured by particular sets of cultural values. It was a highly social activity, involving closely-knit groups of individuals working together towards a common purpose, in situations where they depended on each other for their safety. With no written records, the challenge for researchers is to understand these social dynamics using material correlates available in the archaeological record. As in other areas of prehistory, there are certain limits to the inferences that can be made using this type of evidence. That said, the significance of metal to later prehistoric societies provides a broad indication of the importance of mining as an activity. A concern with the social background of these miners goes back to the earliest research in this field. The gradual move towards a ‘social archaeology’ of early copper mining reflects broader paradigm shifts in modern archaeology, away from culture historical explanations to more interpretative understandings of the material record. While recognizing the dangers of cross-cultural generalization, ethnohistoric studies serve to illustrate the vivid social history of mining communities.

Iberia and The Western Mediterranean

The Iberian Peninsula is one the most mineralized parts of Europe, with a long history of metal mining from prehistoric and Roman to modern times. The earliest evidence for copper metallurgy dates to the fifth millennium BC; however, distinctive Chalcolithic metalworking traditions did not emerge in most regions until 3000 BC onwards. There are widespread occurrences of copper mineralization in Spain and Portugal, including many areas with deposits of lead, tin, silver, and gold. Copper deposits occur in the Galician and Cantabrian mountain ranges of northern Spain, extending east to the Pyrenees. They are also numerous in central Spain, in the provinces of Madrid, Avila, Salamanca, and Segovia in the Central Range, and also in the Toledo and Betic mountains of Cordoba. Farther south, there are major copper deposits in the so-called Pyrite Belt, extending from Seville to Huelva into southern Portugal, and also in the Penibetic range from Cartagena to Malaga crossing the sierras of Almeria (Rovira 2002: fig. 3c; see Delibes de Castro and Montero Ruiz 1999 for regional surveys of copper deposits and indications of early mining; also Gómez Ramos 1999; Hunt Ortiz 2003). The widespread availability of ore deposits was a significant factor in the establishment of copper metallurgy in Iberia. How early is contentious, as is the means by which the new technology first developed in different parts of the peninsula. The older explanation of metal-seeking colonists from the east Mediterranean introducing this technology to southern Spain was replaced in the 1960s by a model that emphasized autonomous development (Renfrew 1967, 1973; Montero Ruiz 1994). This was based on the apparent antiquity of copper mining and metallurgy in Iberia and the distinctive technological processes that developed there relative to other parts of Europe. The earliest indication of copper metallurgy in Iberia may come from the settlement of Cerro Virtud in Almeria, south-west Spain. A single sherd from a metallurgical crucible used to reduce oxidized copper ore was discovered in a layer dated to the early fifth millennium BC (Montero Ruiz and Ruíz Taboada 1996; Ruíz Taboada and Montero Ruiz 1999).

Eastern and Central Mediterranean

Copper objects first circulated on the Greek mainland during the fifth millennium BC and shortly after in the islands of the southern Aegean (Zachos 2007). The earliest metalwork of Late Neolithic date comprised small objects such as awls, beads, and bracelets. Metal use gradually expanded during the Chalcolithic stage that followed, with production of larger items such as axeheads. There are parallels with the development of early metallurgy in the Balkans, however there was much less copper in circulation. This may be explained by the absence of early copper mines comparable to Rudna Glava or Ai Bunar in either Greece or the Aegean islands. The use of metal in the Aegean expanded significantly during the third millennium BC, with the emergence of a flourishing culture that had extensive seafaring contacts (Renfrew 1972). The importance of maritime trade in this region dates from the Neolithic when the island of Melos was a major source of obsidian across the east Mediterranean. Lead isotope analysis confirms that the copper, lead, and silver used by the Cycladic culture of the Early Bronze Age came from ore sources on many of those islands (Stos-Gale 1989). These metals were traded widely across the Aegean, with supply also into mainland Greece. While no copper mines have been identified, lead/silver workings of this period are recorded at Lavrion and at Ayios Sostis on Siphnos (Wagner et al. 1980). There are numerous deposits of copper ore and other metals in mainland Greece. No prehistoric copper mines have been identified; however, the potential has been examined by lead isotope analysis. An examination of various ore deposits in northern Greece, including examples in Thrace and eastern Macedonia, Thasos, the Pangeon Mountains, and Chalkidki did not reveal any likely sources of copper in prehistory. Samples were also taken in east-central Greece, from mineralization in the Othrys Mountains where there are several indications of ancient mining. Radiocarbon dates indicate copper mining at various locations there during the first millennium BC (Gale and Stos-Gale 2002: table 3).

Technology and Work Practices

The production of copper in prehistory was a complex undertaking, involving a sequence of inter-related activities that required specialist knowledge and informed organization. The operation of early copper mines demanded a long-term commitment that had important implications for the societies in question. There are obvious parallels with modern mining in terms of the multi-stage nature of the process, from the initial search for copper ores to their extraction, treatment, and eventual conversion to metal. This explains why early mining is often characterized as an ‘industry’, with its own specialists and techniques. Given their professional background, it is not surprising that the earliest researchers in this field focused on the geological setting, technology, and engineering aspects of prehistoric copper mines. Modern research also deals with these aspects, but is more concerned with understanding the wider societal context of this activity. It is now recognized that any reconstruction of the chaîne opératoire of early copper mining cannot be based solely on technique and process, but needs to incorporate the dynamic social context of this activity. It also needs to recognize that human choice played a significant role in determining the process of mining. While some areas are not amenable to archaeological enquiry, a reconstruction of task structure and work routines should capture many aspects of decision making in these mines. This will be revisited in the next chapter to explore the distinctive nature of prehistoric mining communities and how they interacted with the external world. Before doing so, it is necessary to examine the process of mining in terms of the techniques employed and the work environment of these miners. The opening chapter of this book considered the concept of ore, as it would have applied in prehistory. The modern definition is essentially an economic one that relates the cost of mining a mineral deposit to perceived financial returns or strategic interests. The effort of extraction must be set against the concentration or ‘grade’ of metal present in the rock, which will determine whether it can be profitably extracted.

Northern Europe

Copper objects first circulated in Britain and Ireland around 2500 BC, thus beginning a short-lived Chalcolithic that ended with the rapid adoption of tin-bronze metallurgy after 2100 BC. Both islands have numerous sources of copper; however, these orebodies are not evenly distributed, nor were they all accessible to the prehistoric miner. This is part of the explanation why certain regions developed a strong tradition of copper mining that lasted well into the Bronze Age. Ireland has long been regarded as a significant producer of metal in the Bronze Age. This reflects the large quantities of Bronze Age metalwork found in a part of Europe with abundant sources of copper. The south-west region of Cork and Kerry was the main centre for early copper production. This began with mining at Ross Island in Killarney, where Beaker culture groups produced arsenical copper during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age (c.2400–1900 BC). Farther south, there are seven copper mines now dated to the Early to Middle Bronze Age (c.1800–1400 BC) in the peninsulas of west Cork. These are known as Mount Gabriel-type mines, the name coming from the single largest concentration of such workings located on the eastern slopes of this mountain in the Mizen Peninsula (O’Brien 1994, 2003). The recent discovery of trench workings at Derrycarhoon continues the story of Bronze Age copper mining in that area to 1300–1100 BC, after which this activity seems to have ceased (O’Brien 2013). The study of these mines began during the late eighteenth/ early nineteenth centuries, when mineral prospecting led to the discovery of primitive workings at several locations in south-west Ireland. Described as ‘Dane’s Workings’ in the antiquarian literature, these mines were associated with the use of firesetting and stone hammers (see quotations from Griffith 1828 and Thomas 1850 (in O’Brien 2003) in Chapter 1). The first systematic research began in the 1930s with the discovery of the Mount Gabriel group by the geologist, Tom Duffy. These were subsequently mapped by another geologist, John Jackson, who brought these mines to wider attention when he obtained a Bronze Age date for charcoal taken from mine spoil on the mountain (Jackson 1968).

South-East Europe

Copper was the first metal used by humans, a practice that began at different times in various parts of the world. The earliest evidence comes from the Near East around 10,000 years ago, when some early farming communities started to experiment with surface finds of native copper. Initially collected for their golden colour, it was soon discovered that these small pieces of pure copper could be cold-hammered into desired shapes, making them different from rock minerals. This first occurred in areas such as northern Iraq and eastern Anatolia where native copper occurs naturally. By 7000 BC there is evidence from sites such as Cayönü in Anatolia for the heating of native copper (annealing) to improve the production of beads, awls, and other small objects (Muhly 1988, 1989). In time, this led to another important discovery, namely that native copper could be melted and poured into moulds at temperatures around 1083º C. It is not certain when this first occurred, but most probably in the sixth millennium BC (see Pernicka and Anthony 2010 for overview). One of the reasons for the slow development of metallurgy in the Near East was the scarcity of native copper. The growing interest in metal eventually led to experimentation with copper minerals, such as malachite or azurite (Wertime 1973). These were initially used for non-metallurgical purposes, with malachite beads dating to the eleventh millennium BC known from a number of sites, including Shanidar Cave in northern Iraq (Solecki 1969). They were first recognized during the search for native copper, when rock outcrops were discovered bearing the distinctive green or blue staining produced by oxidation of copper minerals. The extraction of these surface minerals must have led in some instances to underground mining. It is not certain when copper ore was first smelted in the Near East. The dating of copper smelting slag at Catal Höyük in south-central Anatolia to the seventh millennium BC remains contentious. The earliest secure evidence comes from the later fifth millennium BC, at sites such as Norsuntepe in southeast Anatolia and Abu Matar in the northern Negev, Israel (Pernicka 1990; Golden et al. 2001).

Central and Eastern Europe

This survey of prehistoric copper mines in Europe began with the oldest known examples, namely Rudna Glava and Ai Bunar in the Balkans. It is now time to consider some of the largest Bronze Age mines, which were major producers of copper that influenced its supply across large parts of the continent. Much of the focus is on Austria, where the earliest scientific investigations of early copper mines were undertaken in Europe. The earliest use of copper in central Europe can be linked to a Late Neolithic culture called the Münchshöfen group, best known in south-eastern Bavaria. A small number of copper objects can be associated with this culture group, including axe-hammers and flat axes, awls, beads, and rings. Scientific analysis of these objects reveals that they probably originated in the Balkans, as part of a spread of metal use into central Europe from that area during the second half of the fifth millennium BC (Höppner et al. 2005). This is supported by the material culture of the Münchshöfen group, in particular the ceramic evidence, which finds close typological parallels with metal-using groups in the Carpathian Basin. It is likely that the same spread of copper use into Austria and southern Germany eventually led to the first attempts to exploit the copper resources of the Alpine region. The evidence comes from the hill-top settlement of Mariahilfbergl near Brixlegg in the Inn Valley of North Tyrol, Austria. Excavation uncovered traces of metallurgical processes in the form of a fireplace with fragments of copper slag, two clay nozzles, and two items of copper metal (Bartelheim et al. 2002, 2003). Radiocarbon analysis indicates a 4500–3640 BC date range, however, the wider cultural context of the site may place these discoveries in the later fifth millennium BC. It is not certain whether smelting took place in this site, though some of the slag-like material suggests the heat treatment of a type of fahlore (tetrahedrite) that is common in the Brixlegg area. Interestingly, chemical and lead isotope analyses of a copper bead and copper strip from the same site context revealed a different chemical composition from that of the slag, one that matches with copper metalwork from Bulgaria and Serbia (Pernicka et al. 1997).

France and The Western Alps

The use of copper was first established in the western Alps during the late fifth/ early fourth millennia BC. There were several metal-using groups in what is now modern Switzerland during the fourth millennium, including the Cortaillod and Pfyn cultures, followed in the third millennium BC by groups of the Saône-Rhône culture (Strahm 1994). The first direct evidence of copper production, however, only dates from the Late Bronze Age. This is based on the dating of smelting slag heaps in the valley of Oberhalbstein in the canton of Graubünden (Fasnacht 2004). These slags derive from the smelting of chalcopyrite ore derived from pillow lavas of the ophiolite geology in that area (Geiger 1984). The ability to smelt iron-rich copper ore involved a furnace technology that seems to have been first developed in the eastern Alps (see Chapter 7). No prehistoric mines are known; however, their existence may be inferred from the smelting of local ore at Late Bronze Age sites such as Savognin-Padnal and Marmorera-Stausees in the Oberhalbstein valley. Potential mining sites have been identified (see Schaer 2003), however, these have yet to be investigated in any detail. There are numerous deposits of copper mineralization in many parts of France. These occur in Brittany, the Pyrenees, the Corbières, on the margins of the Massif Central, the Maures, and the Alps. Research over the past 30 years has identified prehistoric copper mines in several of these areas. Further discoveries are possible in the difficult terrain of the Alps and Pyrenees, and also in areas where early copper mines have not been discovered, such as Brittany where deposits of steam tin and gold are also known. The oldest metal objects in France are recorded in the Paris Basin, where a small number of sheet copper beads date to the second half of the fourth millennium BC. These include the burial at Vignely (Seine-et-Marne) where a necklace of nine such beads was found with the burial of a five-year old child dated to 3499–3123 BC (Allard et al. 1998).

Europe: The Birthplace of Mining?

The origins of mining extend back several million years to when the first hominines in Africa, and subsequently in Europe and Asia, used their bare hands to collect loose rock to make stone tools. This gradually evolved into the systematic collection of rocks with desired properties, as well as an interest in earth minerals such as iron ochre. A desire for these substances led in some cases to more organized collection, involving surface quarrying and eventually underground mining. This activity increased significantly in Europe with the adoption of farming after 7000 BC in the Neolithic period. There is evidence for highly organized mining of flint and other hard rocks to make stone axes and other tools at centres such as Grimes Graves in England, Spiennes in Belgium, and Casa Montero near Madrid, among many others. Mining is also the process by which metal was obtained from the Earth’s surface. Metal objects were first made in the Middle East approximately 10,000 years ago; however, the oldest known copper mines are recorded in Europe. The discovery there of thousands of copper, bronze, and gold objects is a strong indicator that the mining of these metals was a widespread activity during the late prehistoric period. This began with the first use of copper and gold in what is known as the Chalcolithic (‘Copper Age’), which occurred in different regions between the sixth and third millennia BC. Technical advances and growing demand for metal led to the widespread adoption of bronze by 2000 BC, or soon afterwards. This was made possible by the discovery of copper and tin sources in many parts of Europe. Some of these were mined intensively over long periods during the Bronze Age that followed, while others were worked on a smaller scale. The copper produced was supplied to areas without their own resources, creating trade networks that provided economic opportunities and played an important role in cultural exchanges across the Continent. This book is concerned with the prehistory of copper mining and its important place in shaping European societies during the period 5500–500 BC.