Quaternary Ni-Ti-Cu-Pd formulations were cast by vacuum induction melting (VIM) with the aim of preparing low-hysteresis shape memory alloys and verifying the applicability of the Co-Factor theory in conventional industrial manufacturing processes. The cast alloys showed lower transformation hysteresis width in DSC measurements than binary Ni-Ti, but struggled to achieve a near zero hysteresis, as predicted by the theoretical framework, despite being close to satisfy the first Co-Factor condition (CC I) that foresees minimum hysteresis for formulations in which the middle eigenvalue of the martensitic transformation matrix λ2 approaches one. The microstructure of the annealed Ni-Ti-Cu-Pd alloys exhibited a considerable amount of mostly sub-micron-sized secondary phases, which distort the matrix composition and prevent it from reaching the optimum stoichiometry for satisfying the CC I. In addition, this class of materials is prone to aging effects, leading to the formation of semi-coherent tetragonal precipitates, which tend to also form at the grain boundaries after low-temperature annealing, further affecting the transformation hysteresis in DSC experiments depending on the thermal history. This work reveals the importance of considering typical casting effects that alter the theoretical λ2 of ideal materials in the compositional design for the development of high-performance low-hysteresis alloys.
Magnetoresistance and Transformation Hysteresis in the Ni50Mn34.4In15.6 Metamagnetic Shape Memory Alloy