A RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA UNTIL 11TH CENTURY CE

Islam spread in the African continent in phases and in different ages. The process occurred through either expansion of Muslim power as in North Africa, or trading as happened in West Africa. Falola argued that the process of spreading Islam in West Africa generally occurred peacefully through trading and preaching. In that regard, the purpose of this article is to examine the process of spreading Islam in West Africa until the 11th century CE. On the whole, this article is a qualitative research using historical study and content analysis to gather and analyse information from relevant primary and secondary sources. Research findings argue that initial contact of Muslims with the West African region began since the century 1H/7CE. From this contact, Islam began to be introduced to the inhabitants of West Africa through trade from the 2H/8CE century. This research finds that at the end of 4H/10CE and early 5H/11CE centuries, Islam was accepted by the ruling class of West African kingdoms, such as the conversion of rulers of Kanem, Songhay, Takrur and Malal. However, there were also West African rulers who did not embrace Islam such as the ruler of Ghana. Nevertheless, Muslims who resided in their territories were well-treated. Later on, this helped to spread Islam in these territories.

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Heritage Management in West Africa

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology ◽

10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.273 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

C. A. Folorunso

Keyword(s):

West Africa ◽

West African ◽

Heritage Management ◽

Value Systems ◽

Archaeological Sites ◽

African Region ◽

Forthcoming Article ◽

The West ◽

General Terms ◽

West African Region

This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Please check back later for the full article. The definition of heritage in West Africa has to adopt a wider perspective to incorporate tangible and intangible heritage as recognized and defined by UNESCO. In general terms, the West African region does not feature monumental heritage, as elsewhere in Europe and the Americas. The few monumental heritage properties belong to the historic period and are located in the Sahel zone (Mali, in particular), while the coastal regions include monumental heritage properties that were essentially relics of the European contact period and colonialism (Benin Republic, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal). Heritage resources in West Africa are therefore essentially discrete and non-discrete prehistoric and historic archaeological sites that include rockshelters, relics of ancient settlements, mounds, earthworks, industrial relics such as furnaces and surface finds, isolated historic buildings and spaces, and tangible (traditional architecture and artifacts) and intangible (language, poetry and songs, dance and festivals, beliefs and value systems) ethnographic resources. Some studies in the 2010s considered all archival materials, such as audio-visual recordings of events and entertainment of the colonial and the early postcolonial periods, to be heritage resources. Heritage management in the West African region had been problematic due to various factors that could be both historical and attitudinal, such as colonialism, intrusion of foreign religions and ideologies, economic and social conditions of the people, insufficient and ineffective legal and policy frameworks for the protection and conservation of heritage resources, and a general lack of awareness and interest in matters of heritage by the populace. In spite of the foregoing, there have been some efforts at managing heritage in manners that can be interrogated. Government efforts to promote heritage seem to be more evident in the areas of cultural festivals, dance, and music, with the establishment of cultural troupes at various political administrative levels, thus creating the impression that heritage is limited to the intangible cultural resources. Museums are few and far between, priceless artifacts are still looted and illegally exported to foreign museums to join those looted during the colonial era, facilities are limited and not standard, while the staff is poorly trained and unmotivated. In the face of expanding infrastructural developments and urbanization, the most appropriate management strategy and practice would be conservation by recording of archaeological sites and historic properties.

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Ecosystem services in adaptation projects in West Africa

International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management ◽

10.1108/ijccsm-06-2017-0140 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (4) ◽

pp. 533-550 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Kennedy Wahome Muthee ◽

Cheikh Mbow ◽

Geoffrey Mugo Macharia ◽

Walter Leal-Filho

Keyword(s):

Ecosystem Services ◽

West Africa ◽

Agricultural Sector ◽

West African ◽

Short Term ◽

African Region ◽

Content Type ◽

West African Region ◽

Survey Approach ◽

Financial Consideration

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to assess the extent to which adaptation projects have incorporated ecosystem services, as well as their redesigning options. The projects selected are listed under National Adaptation Programme of Action in West African region. Design/methodology/approach A desktop survey approach was used to review 168 projects from 13 countries across West Africa. The projects were categorized and analyzed according to their adaptation goal, thematic focus, their implementation duration and level of investment. Findings The adaptation initiatives are dominated by actions in the agricultural sector accounting for 32 per cent of the total. Further, they were characterized by small grants consideration with 63 per cent falling under US$1m budget, short-term implementation duration with 46 per cent having three years’ execution period. A large portion of projects (55 per cent) mentioned directly one or more ecosystem services, with provisioning services being referred to in 50 per cent of the cases. Originality/value Adaptation projects with ecosystem services components are more sustainable and beneficial to the community. Hence, more consideration of nature benefits during project design, more financial consideration and localizing of the projects to realize the global adaptation goal should be considered.

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Cape Verde in West Africa region: towards a new paradigm for regional integration

Brazilian Journal of International Relations ◽

10.36311/2237-7743.2016.v5n3.05.p545 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 5 (3) ◽

pp. 545-561

Author(s):

João Paulo Madeira ◽

Nataniel Andrade Monteiro

Keyword(s):

West Africa ◽

Regional Integration ◽

Global Economy ◽

West African ◽

Cape Verde ◽

New Paradigm ◽

African Region ◽

The West ◽

Economic Diplomacy ◽

West African Region

The West African region has immeasurable natural resources and a market of more than 300 million consumers, contributing directly to the dynamics of the global economy. This article aims to identify the importance of this region in the development of Cape Verde, an economically dependent country that has given primacy to its foreign policy to bet on political and economic diplomacy. This investigation was a literature review, complemented through an interpretative analysis, in which the results obtained may allow to consider that the archipelago of Cape Verde needs to delineate a new paradigm of regional integration, vying for the West African geo-economics’ space and using as a platform to provide services to other ECOWAS countries, so that the gains may also revert to the strengthening of cooperation with the African continent.Keywords: Cape Verde; West Africa; ECOWAS; Regional Integration; Development.

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The Puzzling Paradox Presented within the African Supranational Judicial Institutions: The ECOWAS Court of Justice

African Journal of International and Comparative Law ◽

10.3366/ajicl.2020.0333 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 28 (Supplement) ◽

pp. 86-109

Author(s):

Kehinde Ibrahim

Keyword(s):

Human Rights ◽

West African ◽

African Region ◽

The West ◽

Political Will ◽

National Courts ◽

Court Of Justice ◽

West African Region

The judgments of the ECOWAS Court, which are final and immediately binding, are vital for the realisation of ECOWAS aims and objectives. The enforcement of its judgments is particularly important in the case of individuals whose enjoyment of fundamental human rights, as guaranteed under the ECOWAS Community laws, is dependent on effective enforcement. Yet, an existential puzzling paradox emanates through a poor record in the implementation of the ECOWAS Court's judgments. This problem, which is not limited to the West African region deserves scrutiny and concrete proposals. Legal and political considerations surface in assessing the existence of this paradox, and despite the lack of a consistent political will, to implement the decisions of ECOWAS Court relevant judicial actors have roles to play. National courts could take a bolder approach in complementing the work of the ECOWAS Court. The ECOWAS Court itself could put in place concrete mechanisms and adopt certain practices to address this poor record of non-implementation. It is yet to be seen how substantive mechanisms would work in practice.

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The AMMA field campaigns: multiscale and multidisciplinary observations in the West African region

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society ◽

10.1002/qj.486 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 136 (S1) ◽

pp. 8-33 ◽

Cited By ~ 117

Author(s):

T. Lebel ◽

D. J. Parker ◽

C. Flamant ◽

B. Bourlès ◽

B. Marticorena ◽

...

Keyword(s):

West African ◽

African Region ◽

The West ◽

West African Region ◽

Field Campaigns

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Foreign Direct Investment in the West African Region: Analyses on the Values of Inflow and Outflow

Risk and Financial Management ◽

10.30560/rfm.v2n1p15 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 2 (1) ◽

pp. p15

Author(s):

Yeboah Evans ◽

Yu Jing

Keyword(s):

Foreign Direct Investment ◽

Direct Investment ◽

Developed Countries ◽

West African ◽

Least Developed Countries ◽

Outward Fdi ◽

African Region ◽

The West ◽

Investment Policies ◽

West African Region

With regards to the ongoing development in investment activities in the Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS) and the entire African continent is because of institutional reforms and initiation of sound investment policies. Foreign direct investment(FDI) inflow and outflow severs as a source of capital formation for most developing and least developed countries. This paper provides an overview and analyses of the flow of FDI to the ECOWAS region by considering 16 nations under this region in determining their performance towards FDI attraction and their contribution to outward FDI across the globe by the use of the quantitative method. The outcome shows that there is a continuous decline in FDI inflow to the ECOWAS region over the past 10 years. The result also proves that Ghana and Nigeria are the major recipients of foreign direct investment inflows in the West African region. The result further indicates that Nigeria is the major contributor of outward FDI from the ECOWAS region. It is recommended that the region should increase its outward FDI.

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Sensitivity of the West African hydrological cycle in ORCHIDEE to infiltration processes

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions ◽

10.5194/hessd-5-2251-2008 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 5 (4) ◽

pp. 2251-2292 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

T. d'Orgeval ◽

J. Polcher ◽

P. de Rosnay

Keyword(s):

Hydrological Cycle ◽

Equatorial Region ◽

West African ◽

Surface Model ◽

African Region ◽

Deep Soil ◽

The West ◽

West African Region ◽

Semi Arid ◽

Infiltration Processes

Abstract. The aim of this article is to test the sensitivity of the Land Surface Model (LSM) ORCHIDEE to infiltration processes in the West African region, and to validate the resulting version of ORCHIDEE against African river discharges. The parameterizations to take into account the effects of flat areas, ponds and floodplains on surface infiltration, and the effect of roots and deep-soil compactness on infiltration are first described. It is shown that the surface infiltration processes have a stronger impact in the soudano-sahelian region and more generally in semi-arid African basins, whereas the rootzone and deep-soil infiltration also play a role in the guinean region and in the intermediate basins between arid and humid ones. In the equatorial region and the semi-humid basins, infiltration processes generally play a minor role. The infiltration parameterizations may explain part of the difference between simulated and observed river discharge in semi-arid and intermediate basins. So ORCHIDEE could be recalibrated to reduce the discharge errors. However, different sources of uncertainty might also explain part of the error. Indeed, the precipitation forcing in the whole West African region, the long-term storage in the soudano-sahelian region, the soil types in the guinean region and the vegetation types in the equatorial region are significant sources of errors. Therefore, a denser monitoring of the hydrological cycle at different scales in West Africa would ensure the reliability of future calibrations for the infiltration parameterizations.

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Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Children in the West African Region

The SAGE Handbook of Human Trafficking and Modern Day Slavery ◽

10.4135/9781526436146.n18 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 360-382

Author(s):

Charles E. Hounmenou

Keyword(s):

Sex Trafficking ◽

Sexual Exploitation ◽

West African ◽

Commercial Sexual Exploitation ◽

African Region ◽

The West ◽

West African Region

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Peace and palaver: international relations in pre-colonial West Africa

The Journal of African History ◽

10.1017/s0021853700013074 ◽

1973 ◽

Vol 14 (4) ◽

pp. 599-621 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Robert Smith

Keyword(s):

West Africa ◽

International Relations ◽

North Africa ◽

Western Europe ◽

West African ◽

Customary Law ◽

Diplomatic Relations ◽

Facilitated Communication ◽

European Languages ◽

European Diplomacy

International relations in pre-colonial West Africa were conducted in accordance with customary law, which exhibited broadly similar characteristics over a wide area. Trade and politics, linking the coast, the forest and the savannah, led to the development of diplomacy in the more centrally-organized states. Inter-African embassies enjoyed a degree of prestige and immunity comparable to that which protected European diplomacy, and a widely accepted protocol regulated negotiations. Treaties were concluded solemnly and sanctions were provided for their observance. Embassies were also sent to Europe and adjacent European possessions and settlements, North Africa and the Near East, and were generally received on a proper footing.The indigenous system of international relations was affected by two major external influences. The first, that of Islam, notably contributed literacy, and led in the Islamized states and in Ashanti to the evolution of chanceries. It also introduced the distinction in international law and practice between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Muslim states exchanged embassies, Bornu, for example, maintaining intermittent relations with North Africa and Istanbul for three centuries. The second influence, that of Western Europe, spread the knowledge of European languages which, like Arabic, facilitated communication between West Africans themselves as well as with outsiders. The development of the resident embassy in sixteenth-century Europe was apparently not reflected in West Africa until the nineteenth century, but approximations to the system of continuous diplomacy did arise, probably independently. Diplomatic relations with both Muslims and Europeans tended to increase the influence in West African politics and society of the literate élite.The indigenous system of international relations in West Africa was flexible and effective, and it seems that it was not so much diplomatic as military incapacity which allowed the Muslims to overthrow governments there and the Europeans to partition the region.

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