Peace and palaver: international relations in pre-colonial West Africa

1973 ◽  
Vol 14 (4) ◽  
pp. 599-621 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Smith
Keyword(s):  
West Africa ◽  
International Relations ◽  
North Africa ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
West African ◽  
Customary Law ◽  
Diplomatic Relations ◽  
Facilitated Communication ◽  
European Languages ◽  
European Diplomacy

International relations in pre-colonial West Africa were conducted in accordance with customary law, which exhibited broadly similar characteristics over a wide area. Trade and politics, linking the coast, the forest and the savannah, led to the development of diplomacy in the more centrally-organized states. Inter-African embassies enjoyed a degree of prestige and immunity comparable to that which protected European diplomacy, and a widely accepted protocol regulated negotiations. Treaties were concluded solemnly and sanctions were provided for their observance. Embassies were also sent to Europe and adjacent European possessions and settlements, North Africa and the Near East, and were generally received on a proper footing.The indigenous system of international relations was affected by two major external influences. The first, that of Islam, notably contributed literacy, and led in the Islamized states and in Ashanti to the evolution of chanceries. It also introduced the distinction in international law and practice between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Muslim states exchanged embassies, Bornu, for example, maintaining intermittent relations with North Africa and Istanbul for three centuries. The second influence, that of Western Europe, spread the knowledge of European languages which, like Arabic, facilitated communication between West Africans themselves as well as with outsiders. The development of the resident embassy in sixteenth-century Europe was apparently not reflected in West Africa until the nineteenth century, but approximations to the system of continuous diplomacy did arise, probably independently. Diplomatic relations with both Muslims and Europeans tended to increase the influence in West African politics and society of the literate élite.The indigenous system of international relations in West Africa was flexible and effective, and it seems that it was not so much diplomatic as military incapacity which allowed the Muslims to overthrow governments there and the Europeans to partition the region.

Revision of the taxonomy of the larvae of the subfamily Eutrombidiinae (Acarina : Microtrombidiidae)

1993 ◽  
Vol 7 (4) ◽  
pp. 885 ◽  
Author(s):  
RV Southcott
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
North America ◽  
West Africa ◽  
North Africa ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Cape Verde ◽  
Carabid Beetle ◽  
The Family ◽  
Biological Characters ◽  
Belgian Congo

The subfamily Eutrombidiinae of the Trombidioidea (Acarina) is revised, and placed with the Microtrombidiinae in the family Microtrombidiidae; it is divided into the three tribes Eutrombidiini, Hexathrombiini, trib, nov., and Milliotrombidiini, trib. nov., with differing biological characters as well as taxonomic. The division is made for the larvae, as adult-larva correlations are known only for Eutrombidium. Eutrombidiini is left with two genera: Verdunella, gen. nov., monotypic with V. lockleii (Welbourn & Young) from Araneida, North America, and Eutrombidium Verdun, cosmopolitan from Orthoptera, principally Acrididae, with the following species recognised as larvae: E. centrale, sp, nov., E. occidentale, sp. nov., E. orientale, sp. nov. (North America), E. trigonum (Hermann) (western Europe), E. africanum, sp. nov., E. macfarlanei, sp. nov. (Niger, west Africa), E. verdense, sp. nov. (Cape Verde Islands, Atlantic), E. robauxi, sp. nov. (Corfu, Turkey), E. feldmanmuhsamae Feider (Israel), E. indicum, sp. nov. (India), and E. australiense, sp. nov. (Australia). The following nominal taxa (larvae) are left unkeyed: E. debilipes (Leonardi) (western Russia), E. locustarum (Walsh) (North America), E. odorheiense Feider (Romania) (with subspecies E. o. odorheiense Feider and E. o. littorale Feider), and E. townsendi (Dumbleton) (New Zealand). Larvae of the Hexathrombiini are ectoparasitic on Coleoptera (one exception); genera indude Hexathrombium Cooreman, Hoplothrombium Ewing and Beronium Southcott. Hexathrombium has two species, H. spatuliferum Cooreman (on carabid beetle, former Belgian Congo), and H. willisi, sp. nov. (on cicindelid beetle, North America). Hoplothrombium is known from H. quinquescutatum Ewing (on ‘beetle mite’, i.e. Oribatei, Acarina, in toad's stomach, North America). Beronium is known for B. coiffaiti (Beron), an eyeless form (from cavernicolous carabid beetle, North Africa). Milliotrombidiini larvae are ectoparasites of Myriapoda; genera include Milliotrombidium Shiba, with M. milliopodum Shiba (from millipede, Malaya) and Kepongia, gen, nov., with K. malayensis, sp. nov. (from centipede, Malaya). Names are assigned to the various specialised setae on tarsus III of the larvae with ‘deformed’ claws, i.e. with tarsus III modified for saltation.

Gerhard Rohlfs in Yorubaland

1994 ◽  
Vol 21 ◽  
pp. 251-268 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elisabeth de Veer ◽  
Ann O'Hear
Keyword(s):  
West Africa ◽  
North Africa ◽  
English Translation ◽  
West African ◽  
The West ◽  
West African Coast ◽  
African Coast ◽  
The Way

Gerhard Rohlfs was born in Vegesack near Bremen in 1831. He was a frequent traveler in Africa, and in 1865-67 he became the first European to travel from north Africa across the Sahara to the west African coast, from Tripoli to Borno, then through Bauchi and Keffi to Loko, thence down the Benue to its confluence with the Niger at Lokoja, which he reached on 28 March 1867. From there, he proceeded upstream along the Niger to Raba, delivering presents to Masaba of Nupe. From Raba, he traveled overland through Yorubaland to Lagos. In 1868 he published an account of the first half of this journey, from north Africa to Borno, in Petermann's Mitteilungen. In 1872 his account of the second half, “Gerhard Rohlfs' Reise durch Nord-Afrika vom Mittelländischen Meere bis zum Busen von Guinea, 1865 bis 1867, 2. Hälfte: von Kuka nach Lagos (Bornu, Bautschi, Saria, Nupe, Yoruba),” also appeared in Petermann's. A later publication, Quer durch Afrika, which appeared in 1874-75, covered the entire journey.Rohlfs' accounts of his travels in west Africa south of the Sahara have up to now been greatly neglected. The works mentioned above have never been published in English translation, which no doubt goes some way to explain this neglect. Rohlfs' information on his stay in Kuka (the capital of Borno) and his visits to Bauchi and Nupe have been cited by some scholars, at least. Very few, however, appear to have consulted his description of the last leg of his 1866-67 journey, in which he proceeded from the Niger south through Yorubaland to Lagos, visiting Share, Ilorin, Iwo, Ibadan, and parts of Ijebuland on the way.

scholarly journals A RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA UNTIL 11TH CENTURY CE

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (12) ◽  
pp. 99-104
Author(s):  
Wan Mohd Amirol Ashraf Wan Mohd Badruddin ◽  
◽  
Ezad Azraai Jamsari ◽  
Mohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan Ashari ◽  
Izziah Suryani Mat Resad ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
West Africa ◽  
North Africa ◽  
West African ◽  
Historical Study ◽  
Initial Contact ◽  
Ruling Class ◽  
African Region ◽  
Secondary Sources ◽  
West African Region ◽  
Research Findings

Islam spread in the African continent in phases and in different ages. The process occurred through either expansion of Muslim power as in North Africa, or trading as happened in West Africa. Falola argued that the process of spreading Islam in West Africa generally occurred peacefully through trading and preaching. In that regard, the purpose of this article is to examine the process of spreading Islam in West Africa until the 11th century CE. On the whole, this article is a qualitative research using historical study and content analysis to gather and analyse information from relevant primary and secondary sources. Research findings argue that initial contact of Muslims with the West African region began since the century 1H/7CE. From this contact, Islam began to be introduced to the inhabitants of West Africa through trade from the 2H/8CE century. This research finds that at the end of 4H/10CE and early 5H/11CE centuries, Islam was accepted by the ruling class of West African kingdoms, such as the conversion of rulers of Kanem, Songhay, Takrur and Malal. However, there were also West African rulers who did not embrace Islam such as the ruler of Ghana. Nevertheless, Muslims who resided in their territories were well-treated. Later on, this helped to spread Islam in these territories.

Fātimid Ambassadors in Bobastro: Changing Religious and Political Allegiances in the Islamic West

2009 ◽  
Vol 52 (2) ◽  
pp. 267-300 ◽  
Author(s):  
Virgilio Martínez Enamorado
Keyword(s):  
North Africa ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Diplomatic Relations ◽  
History Of ◽  
Muslim Spain

AbstractThis article focuses on the visit by two Fātimid dā'īs (missionaries or propagandists) to 'Umar ibn Hafsūn, a controversial figure in the history of Muslim Spain. Emphasising the significance of the gifts they brought to Bobastro, Ibn Hafsūn's headquarters, this article analyses the diplomatic relations between North Africa and Islamic Spain in the 10th century and the earliest introduction of Shī'ism in Western Europe. Cette contribution porte sur la visite de deux dā'īs fātimides (missionaires ou propagandistes) à 'Umar ibn Hafsūn qui fut un personnage contesté dans l'histoire de l'Espagne musulmane. Un examen détaillé des cadeaux apportés par eux à Bobastro, le siège de 'Umar ibn Hafsūn, mène à l'analyse des relations diplomatiques entre le Maghreb et l'Andalus au Xème siècle à l'aube de l'introduction de la doctrine chiite en Europe occidental.

PENERAPAN PRINSIP PERSONA NON GRATA TERHADAP DUTA BESAR DITINJAU DARI PERSPEKTIF HUKUM INTERNASIONAL (STUDI KASUS PENGANIAYAAN TKI OLEH DUTA BESAR ARAB SAUDI DI JERMAN)

2019 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 60-71
Author(s):  
Devi Yusvitasari
Keyword(s):  
International Relations ◽  
International Law ◽  
Recipient Country ◽  
Secondary Data ◽  
Vienna Convention ◽  
Diplomatic Relations ◽  
National Interests ◽  
The World ◽  
Diplomatic Immunity ◽  
The Right

A country needs to make contact with each other based on the national interests of each country related to each other, including among others economic, social, cultural, legal, political, and so on. With constant and continuous association between the nations of the world, it is one of the conditions for the existence of the international community. One form of cooperation between countries in the world is in the form of international relations by placing diplomatic representation in various countries. These representatives have diplomatic immunity and diplomatic immunity privileges that are in accordance with the jurisdiction of the recipient country and civil and criminal immunity for witnesses. The writing of the article entitled "The Application of the Principle of Non-Grata Persona to the Ambassador Judging from the Perspective of International Law" describes how the law on the abuse of diplomatic immunity, how a country's actions against abuse of diplomatic immunity and how to analyze a case of abuse of diplomatic immunity. To answer the problem used normative juridical methods through the use of secondary data, such as books, laws, and research results related to this research topic. Based on the results of the study explained that cases of violations of diplomatic relations related to the personal immunity of diplomatic officials such as cases such as cases of persecution by the Ambassador of Saudi Arabia to Indonesian Workers in Germany are of serious concern. The existence of diplomatic immunity is considered as protection so that perpetrators are not punished. Actions against the abuse of recipient countries of diplomatic immunity may expel or non-grata persona to diplomatic officials, which is stipulated in the Vienna Convention in 1961, because of the right of immunity attached to each diplomatic representative.

The Coin of the African Realm

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jeffrey Herbst
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
West Africa ◽  
West African ◽  
Regional Economies ◽  
African Countries ◽  
New Strategies

This chapter examines the politics of the currency in West Africa from the beginning of the twentieth century. A public series of debates over the nature of the currency occurred in West Africa during both the colonial and independence periods. Since 1983, West African countries have been pioneers in Africa in developing new strategies to combat overvaluation of the currency and reduce the control of government over the currency supply. The chapter charts the evolution of West African currencies as boundaries and explores their relationship to state consolidation. It shows that leaders in African capitals managed to make the units they ruled increasingly distinct from the international and regional economies, but the greater salience of the currency did not end up promoting state consolidation. Rather, winning the ability to determine the value of the currency led to a series of disastrous decisions that severely weakened the states themselves.

Introduction

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marina Sharpe
Keyword(s):  
West Africa ◽  
Great Lakes ◽  
East Africa ◽  
North Africa ◽  
Southern Africa ◽  
Theoretical Approach ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Horn Of Africa ◽  
Refugee Protection

This introductory chapter begins by presenting the book’s structure in section A. Section B then delineates the book’s contours, outlining four aspects of refugee protection in Africa that are not addressed. Section C provides context, with a contemporary overview of the state of refugee protection in Africa. It also looks at the major aspects of the refugee situations in each of Africa’s principal geographic sub-regions: East Africa (including the Horn of Africa), Central Africa and the Great Lakes, West Africa, Southern Africa, and North Africa. Section D then concludes with an outline of the theoretical approach to regime relationships employed throughout the book.

Origins and Evolution of the North American Stable Peace

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
David G. Haglund
Keyword(s):  
International Relations ◽  
North American ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Regional Security ◽  
Interstate Relations ◽  
American Experience ◽  
Back Seat ◽  
The North ◽  
Security Communities ◽  
Primary Focus

Interstate relations among the North American countries have been irenic for so long that the continent is often assumed to have little if anything to contribute to scholarly debates on peaceful change. In good measure, this can be attributed to the way in which discussions of peaceful change often become intertwined with a different kind of inquiry among international relations scholars, one focused upon the origins and denotative characteristics of “pluralistic security communities.” Given that it is generally (though not necessarily accurately) considered that such security communities first arose in Western Europe, it is not difficult to understand why the North American regional-security story so regularly takes an analytical back seat to what is considered to be the far more interesting European one. This article challenges the idea that there is little to learn from the North American experience, inter alia by stressing three leading theoretical clusters within which can be situated the scholarly corpus of works attempting to assess the causes of peaceful change on the continent. Although the primary focus is on the Canada–US relationship, the article includes a brief discussion of where Mexico might be said to fit in the regional-security order.

scholarly journals Conflict antiquities’ rescue or ransom: The cost of buying back stolen cultural property in contexts of political violence

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-22
Author(s):  
Samuel Andrew Hardy
Keyword(s):  
Political Violence ◽  
North Africa ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Cultural Property ◽  
Natural Experiments ◽  
Political Organizations ◽  
Criminal Organizations ◽  
Revenue Streams ◽  
The Cost ◽  
Safe Zones

Abstract Rescue has long been a defense for the removal of cultural property. Since the explosion of iconoclasm in West Asia, North Africa, and West Africa, there has been a growing demand for cultural property in danger zones to be “rescued” by being purchased and given “asylum” in “safe zones” (typically, in the market countries of Western Europe and North America). This article reviews evidence from natural experiments with the “rescue” of looted antiquities and stolen artifacts from across Asia and Europe. Unsurprisingly, the evidence reaffirms that “rescue” incentivizes looting, smuggling, and corruption, as well as forgery, and the accompanying destruction of knowledge. More significantly, “rescue” facilitates the laundering of “ordinary” illicit assets and may contribute to revenue streams of criminal organizations and violent political organizations; it may even weaken international support for insecure democracies. Ultimately, “rescue” by purchase appears incoherent, counter-productive, and dangerous for the victimized communities that it purports to support.

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