The onset and intensity of shivering of various muscles during cold air exposure are quantified and related to increases in metabolic rate and convective heat loss. Thirteen male subjects resting in a supine position and wearing only shorts were exposed to 10 degrees C air (42% relative humidity and less than 0.4 m/s airflow) for 2 h. Measurements included surface electromyogram recordings at six muscle sites representing the trunk and limb regions of one side of the body, temperatures and heat fluxes at the same contralateral sites, and metabolic rate. The subjects were grouped according to lean (LEAN, n = 6) and average body fat (NORM, n = 7) content. While the rectal temperatures fluctuated slightly but not significantly during exposure, the skin temperature decreased greatly, more at the limb sites than at the trunk sites. Muscles of the trunk region began to shiver sooner and at a higher intensity than those of the limbs. The intensity of shivering and its increase over time of exposure were consistent with the increase in the convective heat transfer coefficient calculated from skin temperatures and heat fluxes. Both the onset of shivering and the magnitude of the increase in metabolic rate due to shivering were higher for the LEAN group than for the NORM group. A regression analysis indicates that, for a given decrease in mean skin temperature, the increase in metabolic rate due to shivering is attenuated by the square root of percent body fat. Thus the LEAN group shivered at higher intensity, resulting in higher increases in metabolic heat production and convective heat loss during cold air exposure than did the NORM group.
An Example of Heat Transfer at the Air-Sea Boundary* over the Gulf Stream during a Cold Air Outbreak