Enteric Virus: Risk Assessment of Ocean Disposal of Sewage Sludge

1988 ◽  
Vol 20 (11-12) ◽  
pp. 25-31 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles P. Gerba ◽  
Sagar M. Goyal
Keyword(s):  
Sewage Sludge ◽  
Marine Environment ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Significant Risk ◽  
Enteric Virus ◽  
The United States ◽  
Norwalk Virus ◽  
Bathing Waters ◽  
Increased Risk

Densely populated coastal regions of the world generate large quantities of domestic sewage sludge which is often disposed into the marine environment. Present in these wastes are human pathogenic viruses which are capable of surviving for prolonged periods of time in the marine environment and transmitting disease to humans by a number of potential routes of which swimming and consumption of marine foods are the most significant. Hepatitis A virus and Norwalk virus outbreaks associated with shellfish consumption continue to occur in the United States. Three separate epidemiological studies have also shown an association between shellfish consumption and increased risk of hepatitis A infection in consumers. An epidemiological association between non-A and non-B hepatitis has also been demonstrated. A review of the risks of infection, clinical illness and mortality associated with enteroviruses suggests that the presence of these viruses in shellfish and bathing waters presents a significant risk to the consumer.

Outbreaks of Shellfish-Associated Enteric Virus Illness in the United States: Requisite for Development of Viral Guidelines

1985 ◽  
Vol 48 (9) ◽  
pp. 815-823 ◽  
Author(s):  
GARY P. RICHARDS
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Enteric Virus ◽  
The United States ◽  
Viral Gastroenteritis ◽  
Norwalk Virus ◽  
Virus Contamination ◽  
Pathogenic Viruses

Outbreaks of hepatitis A, Norwalk illness, and nonspecific viral gastroenteritis are associated with consumption of sewage-contaminated shellfish. Over 100 outbreaks have been reported in the United States during the past 50 years. Reported cases of shellfish-associated enteric virus illness are on the increase, whereas bacterial illness from shellfish is on the decline. As yet, there are no procedures for detecting hepatitis A virus, Norwalk virus and numerous other pathogenic viruses in environmental samples, but virus extraction and assay procedures for water and shellfish are available for the more easily cultivated enteric viruses. Current standards rely on bacterial indicators as a means to evaluate the sanitary quality of shellfish and their growing waters, but the adequacy of using bacteria as indicators of possible virus contamination is questionable. The feasibility of employing enteroviruses or rotaviruses as possible viral indiators is discussed. It is proposed that easily cultivated enteroviruses, such as poliovirus, be used as an interim indicator for the possible presence of human pathogenic viruses in seafoods, with the subsequent formulation of guidelines to limit the levels of virus contamination in shellfish.

Viral Foodborne Disease Agents of Concern

1994 ◽  
Vol 57 (2) ◽  
pp. 176-178 ◽  
Author(s):  
DEAN O. CLIVER
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
The United States ◽  
Molecular Techniques ◽  
Detection Methods ◽  
Foodborne Disease ◽  
Norwalk Virus ◽  
Routine Basis ◽  
Human Enteric Viruses

Viruses transmitted to humans via foods generally emanate from the human intestines. In the United States, Norwalk virus ranked #5, hepatitis A virus #6, and “other viruses” (principally rotavirus) #10 among the top 10 causes of foodborne disease during 1983–1987. Molluscs are the most frequently reported vehicles, but any food handled by humans may transmit human enteric viruses. Some fruit and vegetable vehicles may have been contaminated in the field before or during harvesting. Viruses in foods may be inactivated before the food is eaten, and thus, not cause infection. Increasingly sensitive detection methods, largely based on “molecular” techniques, are becoming available for these viruses but are not applicable to monitoring foods on a routine basis.

Detection of enteric viruses in sewage sludge and treated wastewater effluent

2010 ◽  
Vol 61 (2) ◽  
pp. 537-544 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. D. Schlindwein ◽  
C. Rigotto ◽  
C. M. O. Simões ◽  
C. R. M. Barardi
Keyword(s):  
Sewage Sludge ◽  
Membrane Filtration ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Human Health Risk ◽  
Enteric Viruses ◽  
Enteric Virus ◽  
Wastewater Effluent ◽  
Treated Wastewater ◽  
Polyethylene Glycol Precipitation

Sewage sludge and treated wastewater when contaminated with enteric virus and discharged into the environment, could pose a human health risk. The aim of study was to verify the presence and viability of enteric viruses in sewage sludge and treated wastewater at a local sewage plant in Florianopolis city, Brazil. Sewage sludge was concentrated by organic flocculation and polyethylene glycol precipitation and wastewater by electronegative membrane filtration and ultrafiltration by Centriprep Concentrator. Adenovirus (AdV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), and Rotavirus (RV) were examined for all samples for 12 months and Poliovirus (PV) was also tested for in sewage sludge samples. AdV was the most prevalent in both kind of samples, followed by RV, PV (in sludge) and HAV. Viral viability by cell culture (ICC-PCR) was: AdV: 100%, HAV: 16.7%, PV: 91.7%, RV: 25% in sludge and AdV: 66.6%, HAV: 66.6% and RV: 0% in wastewater. IFA for AdV in sludge ranged from 70 to 300 FFU/ml. QPCR for AdV ranged from 4.6 × 104 to 1.2 × 106 and from 50 to 1.3 × 104 gc/ml in sludge and wastewater, respectively. HAV quantification in sludge ranged from 3.1 × 102 to 5.4 × 102 gc/ml. In conclusion, it was possible to correlate presence and viability of enteric viruses in the environmental samples analyzed.

scholarly journals Enteric Virus Survival during Household Laundering and Impact of Disinfection with Sodium Hypochlorite

2007 ◽  
Vol 73 (14) ◽  
pp. 4425-4428 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles P. Gerba ◽  
Denise Kennedy
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Sodium Hypochlorite ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Enteric Viruses ◽  
Enteric Virus ◽  
The United States ◽  
Cotton Cloth ◽  
Organic Load ◽  
Virus Survival

ABSTRACT This study was conducted to determine whether enteric viruses (adenovirus, rotavirus, and hepatitis A virus) added to cotton cloth swatches survive the wash cycle, the rinse cycle, and a 28-min permanent press drying cycle as commonly practiced in households in the United States. Detergent with and without bleach (sodium hypochlorite) was added to washing machines containing sterile and virus-inoculated 58-cm2 swatches, 3.2 kg of cotton T-shirts and underwear, and a soiled pillowcase designed to simulate the conditions (pH, organic load, etc.) encountered in soiled laundry. The most important factors for the reduction of virus in laundry were passage through the drying cycle and the addition of sodium hypochlorite. Washing with detergent alone was not found to be effective for the removal or inactivation of enteric viruses, as significant concentrations of virus were found on the swatches (reductions of 92 to 99%). It was also demonstrated that viruses are readily transferred from contaminated cloths to uncontaminated clothes. The use of sodium hypochlorite reduced the number of infectious viruses on the swatches after washing and drying by at least 99.99%. Laundering practices in common use in the United States do not eliminate enteric and respiratory viruses from clothes. The use of bleach can further reduce the numbers of enteric viruses in laundry.

Hepatitis A virus infections associated with clotting factor concentrate in the United States

Transfusion ◽  
1998 ◽  
Vol 38 (6) ◽  
pp. 573-579 ◽  
Author(s):  
JM Soucie ◽  
BH Robertson ◽  
BP Bell ◽  
KA McCaustland ◽  
BL Evatt
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
The United States ◽  
Clotting Factor ◽  
Virus Infections ◽  
Factor Concentrate

scholarly journals Three-Year Study To Assess Human Enteric Viruses in Shellfish

2000 ◽  
Vol 66 (8) ◽  
pp. 3241-3248 ◽  
Author(s):  
F. Le Guyader ◽  
L. Haugarreau ◽  
L. Miossec ◽  
E. Dubois ◽  
M. Pommepuy
Keyword(s):  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Virus Detection ◽  
Enteric Viruses ◽  
Molecular Technique ◽  
Norwalk Virus ◽  
Viral Contamination ◽  
Long Period ◽  
Reverse Transcription Pcr ◽  
Human Enteric Viruses

ABSTRACT The main pathogenic enteric viruses able to persist in the environment, such as hepatitis A virus (HAV), Norwalk-like virus (NLV), enterovirus (EV), rotavirus (RV), and astrovirus (AV), were detected by reverse transcription-PCR and hybridization in shellfish during a 3-year study. Oyster samples (n = 108), occasionally containing bacteria, were less frequently contaminated, showing positivity for AV (17%), NLV (23%), EV (19%), and RV (27%), whereas mussel samples, collected in areas routinely impacted by human sewage, were more highly contaminated: AV (50%), HAV (13%), NLV (35%), EV (45%), and RV (52%). Sequences obtained from HAV and NLV amplicons showed a great variety of strains, especially for NLV (strains close to Mexico, Snow Mountain Agent, or Norwalk virus). Viral contamination was mainly observed during winter months, although there were some seasonal differences among the viruses. This first study of virus detection over a fairly long period of time suggests that routine analysis of shellfish by a molecular technique is feasible.

Viral Hepatitis A

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kenrad E Nelson ◽  
Brittany L Kmush
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Acute Hepatitis ◽  
Injection Drug Users ◽  
Drug Users ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Severe Disease ◽  
The United States ◽  
Childhood Immunization ◽  
Effective Prevention

Epidemics of infectious jaundice have been reported throughout recorded history. However, the proof that many of these outbreaks and individual cases of acute hepatitis were caused by a viral infection, the hepatitis A virus (HAV), did not appear until the 1960s. After the transmission of infection to marmosets and humans, the epidemiologic and virologic characteristics that differed between hepatitis A and hepatitis B virus infections were defined more clearly. After the development and licensure of hepatitis A vaccines in the 1990s, it became possible to implement an effective prevention program involving routine immunization of young children in the United States and several other Western countries. However, despite the dramatic efficacy of the childhood immunization program in reducing the incidence of acute hepatitis from HAV in the population, older children and adults remained susceptible. Significant morbidity continues to occur in the United States among international travelers, injection drug users, persons with underlying liver disease, and other high-risk populations. Since HAV is a global pathogen, the prevention of increasing morbidity from hepatitis A attributable to the incidence of clinically more severe disease increases in countries transitioning from high to intermediate or low endemic status is a major public health challenge. In this review, we discuss the epidemiology, virology, clinical characteristics, and prevention of hepatitis A infections. This review contains 8 figures, 3 tables and 89 references Key words: epidemiology, global impact, hepatitis A vaccine, hepatitis A virus, prevention, reservoirs, risk factors, treatment

Hepatitis A Virus Transmission by Blood Products in the United States

Vox Sanguinis ◽  
1994 ◽  
Vol 67 (1) ◽  
pp. 24-28 ◽  
Author(s):  
James W. Mosley ◽  
Marek J. Nowicki ◽  
Carol K. Kasper ◽  
Elizabeth Donegan ◽  
Louis M. Aledort ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Virus Transmission ◽  
The United States ◽  
Blood Products

scholarly journals Susceptibility to Hepatitis A Virus Infection in the United States, 2007–2016

2020 ◽  
Vol 71 (10) ◽  
pp. e571-e579 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shaoman Yin ◽  
Laurie Barker ◽  
Kathleen N Ly ◽  
Greta Kilmer ◽  
Monique A Foster ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Hepatitis A ◽  
Hepatitis A Virus ◽  
Risk Groups ◽  
The United States ◽  
Poverty Level ◽  
Health And Nutrition ◽  
National Immunization ◽  
Vaccination Recommendations ◽  
Sex With Men

Abstract Background Despite national immunization efforts, including universal childhood hepatitis A (HepA) vaccination recommendations in 2006, hepatitis A virus (HAV)–associated outbreaks have increased in the United States. Unvaccinated or previously uninfected persons are susceptible to HAV infection, yet the susceptibility in the US population is not well known. Methods Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2016 data, we estimated HAV susceptibility prevalence (total HAV antibody negative) among persons aged ≥2 years. Among US-born adults aged ≥20 years, we examined prevalence, predictors, and age-adjusted trends of HAV susceptibility by sociodemographic characteristics. We assessed HAV susceptibility and self-reported nonvaccination to HepA among risk groups and the “immunization cohort” (those born in or after 2004). Results Among US-born adults aged ≥20 years, HAV susceptibility prevalence was 74.1% (95% confidence interval, 72.9–75.3%) during 2007–2016. Predictors of HAV susceptibility were age group 30–49 years, non-Hispanic white/black, 130% above the poverty level, and no health insurance. Prevalences of HAV susceptibility and nonvaccination to HepA, respectively, were 72.9% and 73.1% among persons who reported injection drug use, 67.5% and 65.2% among men who had sex with men, 55.2% and 75.1% among persons with hepatitis B or hepatitis C, and 22.6% and 25.9% among the immunization cohort. Susceptibility and nonvaccination decreased over time among the immunization cohort but remained stable among risk groups. Conclusions During 2007–2016, approximately three-fourths of US-born adults remained HAV susceptible. Enhanced vaccination efforts are critically needed, particularly targeting adults at highest risk for HAV infection, to mitigate the current outbreaks.

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