Sensitivity to disinfection of bacterial indicator organisms for monitoring the Salmonella Enteritidis status of layer farms after cleaning and disinfection

Bacterial indicator organisms are used globally to assess the microbiological safety of waters. However, waterborne viral outbreaks have occurred in drinking water systems despite negative bacterial results. Using viral markers may therefore provide more accurate health risk assessment data. In this study, fecal, wastewater, stormwater, surface water (fresh and salt), groundwater, and drinking water samples were analyzed for the presence or concentration of traditional indicators, innovative indicators and viral markers. Samples were obtained in the United States, Italy, and Australia and results compared to those reported for studies conducted in Asia and South America as well. Indicators included total coliforms, Escherichia coli, enterococci, male-specific coliphages, somatic coliphages and microviradae. Viral markers included adenovirus, polyomavirus, and a potential new surrogate, Torque teno virus (TTV). TTV was more frequently found in wastewaters (38–100%) and waters influenced by waste discharges (25%) than in surface waters used as drinking water sources (5%). TTV was also specific to human rather than animal feces. While TTV numbers were strongly correlated to other viral markers in wastewaters, suggesting its utility as a fecal contamination marker, data limitations and TTV presence in treated drinking waters demonstrates that additional research is needed on this potential viral indicator.

Download Full-text

Persistence and Distribution ofErysipelothrix rhusiopathiaeand Bacterial Indicator Organisms on Land Used for Disposal of Piggery Effluent

Journal of Applied Bacteriology ◽

10.1111/j.1365-2672.1980.tb01024.x ◽

1980 ◽

Vol 48 (3) ◽

pp. 367-375 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

D. S. CHANDLER ◽

J. A. CRAVEN

Keyword(s):

Indicator Organisms ◽

Bacterial Indicator

Download Full-text

Consecutive salmonella outbreaks traced to the same bakery

Epidemiology and Infection ◽

10.1017/s0950268800052390 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 116 (2) ◽

pp. 161-167 ◽

Cited By ~ 21

Author(s):

M. R. Evans ◽

J. P. Tromans ◽

E. L. S. Dexter ◽

C. D. Ribeiro ◽

D. Gardner

Keyword(s):

Confidence Interval ◽

Environmental Contamination ◽

Odds Ratio ◽

Salmonella Enteritidis ◽

Phage Type ◽

Food Poisoning ◽

Cross Contamination ◽

Sponge Cake ◽

Community Outbreaks ◽

Cleaning And Disinfection

SUMMARYTwo consecutive community outbreaks of Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 (PT4) traced to the same bakery occurred in Cardiff, Wales during August–September 1992. In the first outbreak, illness was associated with eating custard slices (odds ratio 23·8, 95% confidence interval 6·5–94·4, P < 0·0001), and in the second, with eating fresh cream cakes (odds ratio 15·8, 95% confidence interval 1·6–374, P = 0·004). Environmental investigations implicated cross-contamination during preparation of the cold-custard mix as the cause of the first outbreak, and inadequate cleaning and disinfection of nozzles used for piping cream in the second outbreak. S. enteritidis PT4 was isolated from fresh cream sponge cake retained by a case and from two fresh cream cakes and four environmental swabs obtained at the bakery. This incident illustrates the hazard of widespread environmental contamination with salmonella and the need for thorough environmental cleansing of any premises implicated in an outbreak of food poisoning.

Download Full-text

Effect of Heating Patterns on Inactivation and Regrowth Potential of Bacterial Indicator Organisms in Simulation of Composting

Japanese Journal of Water Treatment Biology ◽

10.2521/jswtb.39.131 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 39 (3) ◽

pp. 131-138

Author(s):

MASAFUMI TATEDA ◽

LE DUC TRUNG ◽

MICHIHIKO IKE ◽

MASANORI FUJITA

Keyword(s):

Indicator Organisms ◽

Bacterial Indicator

Download Full-text

The Health of Sydney Surfers: An Epidemiological Study

Water Science & Technology ◽

10.2166/wst.1993.0342 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 27 (3-4) ◽

pp. 175-181 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

J. F. Harrington ◽

D. N. Wilcox ◽

P. S. Giles ◽

N. J. Ashbolt ◽

J. C. Evans ◽

...

Keyword(s):

High Frequency ◽

Pilot Trial ◽

Respiratory Illness ◽

Indicator Organisms ◽

Water Board ◽

Relative Risks ◽

Bacterial Indicator ◽

Survey Sample ◽

Recreational Use ◽

North And South

This study forms part of a three year prospective cohort research project which began with a pilot trial in the summer of 1989/1990. The study proper will span the summers of 1990/91, 1991/92 and 1992/93. In response to environmental concerns about sewage ocean outfalls, the Water Board commissioned this study of recreational use of six popular surfing beaches located north and south of Sydney Harbour. A survey sample of 2003 recruits was enrolled on which 43,175 swimming events were recorded. Of these, 5879 (14%) had possibly attributable illness. A rise in relative risks was noted for total illness and respiratory illness but not for gastrointestinal illness. The relative risks for total illness in males rose from 1.79 in high frequency beach swimmers to 2.26 when high frequency beach swimming was combined with swimming at non-ocean sites. Females showed an increase in reported illness when beach swimming was combined with non-ocean swimming. This study lends no support to the concept of correlating health risk in swimmers with threshold levels of currently used bacterial indicator organisms. The value of further exploring the role of Clostridium perfringens as an indicator organism is supported.

Download Full-text

Correlations of the Protozoa, Cryptosporidium and Giardia, with Water Quality Variables in a Watershed

Water Science & Technology ◽

10.2166/wst.1988.0295 ◽

1988 ◽

Vol 20 (11-12) ◽

pp. 271-276 ◽

Cited By ~ 29

Author(s):

Joan B. Rose ◽

Hamid Darbin ◽

Charles P. Gerba

Keyword(s):

Fecal Coliform ◽

Fluorescent Microscopy ◽

Correlation Coefficients ◽

Fecal Coliforms ◽

Indicator Organisms ◽

Membrane Filters ◽

Bacterial Indicator ◽

Indirect Immunofluorescent Assay ◽

Indirect Immunofluorescent ◽

Enteric Protozoa

A watershed in the western United States was surveyed biweekly for a year for the protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Parasite samples were collected using filtration of 200-1000 L of water, eluted by washing the filter, concentrated and clarified with density gradients. Oocyst and cysts were detected using monoclonal antibodies, in a direct or indirect immunofluorescent assay. The organisms were enumerated on membrane filters using epi-fluorescent microscopy. Number of organisms per liter of water were then calculated. Grab samples were analyzed for total and fecal coliform concentrations as well as turbidities. After log10(y+1.0) transformations, Pearson's correlation coefficients were derived for each variable against all others. From 39 samples, Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected in 20 and 12 of the samples, respectively, and oocyst concentrations were approximately 10 times higher than cyst levels. The river downstream from the lake ran through an area concentrated with cattle pasture and had the greater numbers of both parasites (1.09 oocysts and 0.22 cysts/L). The lake, although receiving sewage effluents, may have also had lower levels (0.58 oocysts and 0.08 cysts/L) because of dilution and sedimentation. Coliform levels ranged from 0.12 to 75 CFU/l00ml while fecal coliform levels were slightly lower. Turbidity averaged 55 NTU at the river and 48 NTU at the lake. Correlation coefficients were derived for all variables. Giardia concentrations were significantly correlated to Cryptosporidium concentrations with an r value of 0.778, significant at the 99% confidence level. No other correlations were observed between Giardia and total or fecal coliforms or turbidities nor between Cryptosporidium levels and total or fecal coliforms or turbidities. Neither bacterial indicator organisms nor turbidity are reliable predictors for the absence of enteric protozoa in the study watershed.

Download Full-text

Microbiological Quality of Broilers During Processing in a Modern Commercial Slaughterhouse in Kuwait

Journal of Food Protection ◽

10.4315/0362-028x-57.10.887 ◽

1994 ◽

Vol 57 (10) ◽

pp. 887-892 ◽

Cited By ~ 61

Author(s):

A. S. ABU-RUWAIDA ◽

W. N. SAWAYA ◽

B. H. DASHTI ◽

M. MURAD ◽

H.A. AL-OTHMAN

Keyword(s):

Salmonella Enteritidis ◽

Microbiological Quality ◽

Processing Plant ◽

Indicator Organisms ◽

E Coli ◽

Colony Forming Units ◽

Different Types ◽

Substantial Change ◽

And Staphylococcus Aureus

The effect of processing procedures and overall environmental and hygienic conditions on the microbiological quality and safety of chicken carcasses was studied in a modern processing plant on two separate days. The level of microorganisms on chicken carcasses was assessed by a neck-skin “maceration” method. Carcasses were heavily contaminated by different types of organisms, including indicator organisms (total aerobics, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms and Escherichia coli) and pathogens (e.g., Salmonella, Campylobacter and Staphylococcus aureus). Microbial levels varied during processing, but the highest levels were detected after scalding and defeathering. Microbial levels did not change during vent opening or evisceration. Spray washing after evisceration did not reduce levels of bacteria. No substantial change occurred in bacteria levels during air-chilling, packaging and cold-storage; however, the finished product was heavily contaminated. In the freshly processed carcasses, mean counts (log colony forming units [CFU]/g neck-skin) of aerobic bacteria Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, E. coli, Campylobacter and S. aureus were 6.6, 4.5, 4.1, 3.6, 5.2 and 2.7 on the first sampling day, and 6.5, 4.6, 4.9, 3.6,4.7 and 4.1 on the second day. Salmonella was present in all birds examined, including those coming directly from the farm. Major serotypes detected on dressed carcasses were Salmonella ohio, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella paratyphi and Salmonella krefeld.

Download Full-text

Aerosolized Enteric Bacteria and Viruses Generated by Spray Irrigation of Wastewater*

Water Science & Technology ◽

10.2166/wst.1989.0090 ◽

1989 ◽

Vol 21 (3) ◽

pp. 131-135 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Hillel I. Shuval ◽

Naomi Guttman-Bass ◽

Juri Applebaum ◽

Badri Fattal

Keyword(s):

Enteric Viruses ◽

Sprinkler Irrigation ◽

High Volume ◽

Enteric Bacteria ◽

Indicator Organisms ◽

Air Samples ◽

Agricultural Communities ◽

Bacterial Indicator ◽

Field Investigations ◽

Spray Irrigation

Field investigations on the dispersion of aerosolized enteric bacteria and viruses generated by wastewater sprinkler irrigation were carried out at agricultural communities in Israel. One hundred and fifty-four air samples were taken in the vicinity of wastewater irrigated fields by two different methods: 1. Anderson multistage impactor air samplers and 2. High Volume Cyclone Scrubbers (HVCS). All night samples at 730 m. were positive for bacterial indicator organisms. 10% of the air samples by HVCS were presumptively positive for enteric viruses including 3 out of 24 samples taken at 730 m. downwind from the wastewater sprinkler fields. In 31% of the virus positive samples, none of the three bacterial indicators were detected. These findings suggest that aerosolized enteric viruses are more resistant to hostile environmental factors than the airborne bacterial indicator organisms. * This study was supported by a grant from the USEPA (CR 80-6416, Project officers: Mr. Walter Jakubowsky and Dr. Elmer Akin). It has not been subject to the Agency's peer and policy review and thus does not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency and no official endorsement should be inferred.

Download Full-text