SynopsisAlthough we may consider the insular phosphate mining interest of John Murray as one of the initial efforts in exploiting ocean-related mineral resources, only in the past decade has a concerted effort been made to mine the sea floor. At this time, commercial recovery of copper, nickel and cobalt from deep-sea ferro-manganese nodules is rapidly approaching reality, and the mining of newly discovered noble and base metal placers and lodes beneath shallow coastal waters is already in early commercial development. While some entrepreneurs, and certain member states of the United Nations, have expressed overly optimistic views, the projected growth trend of the infant ocean minerals industry does point to truly large-scale undersea mining by the end of the 1980s. The chief constraints include lack of legal protection for deep-sea operators, a need for further research on the origin of shelf placer deposits, limited trained personnel for exploration and insufficient risk capital to sustain long-term exploration, particularly in unexplored coastal areas of politically unstable states.In terms of meeting the exploratory and engineering needs of the next two decades, we must initiate extensive research on (1) high- and low-energy marine placers, (2) direct metal sensing systems,(3) new sampling tools for rapid economic evaluation of underwater prospects and on (4) the design and development of unmanned sea-floor mining and processing machines which are highly efficient and yet do not degrade the environment.Legal, political and social problems must also be overcome by providing laws for (1) mining in international waters, (2) for conservation of resources, (3) for protection of the marine environment, including inland seas, and (4) by directing early attention to the related socio-economic problems of employment and labour.Of timely concern is providing the highly specialised education required of marine minerals explorationists and mining engineers, and training for sea-going technologists. Specific recommendations for solving these several problems are presented and discussed, including interdisciplinary,multi-nation co-operation.Based on recent studies, predictions for the expansion of ocean minerals extraction during the remainder of this century are presented. The periods 1970-80, 1980-90 and 1990-2000 are reviewed to show the projected early successes of copper, nickel and cobalt recovery from deep-sea nodules by 1975, the introduction of large-scale shelf mining of noble and base metal deposits by 1980, the use of unmanned sea-floor mining systems by 1990, and the major shift to marine base metal resources by the year 2000.Based on contemporary studies at the University of Wisconsin, mineral prospects in waters off Canada, Norway, Alaska, USSR, Greenland and Malagasy are presented, as are prospective sites on the mid-ocean ridge and beneath the North American Great Lakes. These prospects relate to copper, rare earths, gold, platinum, uranium and base metal sulfides.Opportunities for participation by emerging nations in ocean minerals are many, including encouragement of exploration in sovereign waters, participating in exchange student training programmes, and revising tax laws to allow broader economic incentives which will, in time, provide commerce, revenue and, most importantly, employment for nationals.
Microwave and Ultrasound Effect on Ammoniacal Leaching of Deep-Sea Nodules
