Development of Cognitive Control in the Flanker task and its Relations to Self-Regulation

The emotional basis of cognitive control has been investigated in the flanker task with various procedures and materials across different studies. The present study examined the issue with the same flanker task but with different types of emotional stimuli and design. In seven experiments, the flanker effect and its sequential modulation according to the preceding trial type were assessed. Experiments 1 and 2 used affective pictures and emotional facial expressions as emotional stimuli, and positive and negative stimuli were intermixed. There was little evidence that emotional stimuli influenced cognitive control. Experiments 3 and 4 used the same affective pictures and facial expressions, but positive and negative stimuli were separated between different participant groups. Emotional stimuli reduced the flanker effect as well as its sequential modulation regardless of valence. Experiments 5 and 6 used affective pictures but manipulated arousal and valence of stimuli orthogonally The results did not replicate the reduced flanker effect or sequential modulation by valence, nor did they show consistent effects of arousal. Experiment 7 used a mood induction technique and showed that sequential modulation was positively correlated with valence rating (the higher the more positive) but was negatively correlated with arousal rating. These results are inconsistent with several previous findings and are difficult to reconcile within a single theoretical framework, confirming an elusive nature of the emotional basis of cognitive control in the flanker task.

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Age Moderates the Association of Aerobic Exercise with Initial Learning of an Online Task Requiring Cognitive Control

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society ◽

10.1017/s1355617715000685 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 21 (10) ◽

pp. 802-815 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Patrick J. O’Connor ◽

Phillip D. Tomporowski ◽

Rodney K. Dishman

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Resistance Exercise ◽

Latent Class ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Linear Increase ◽

Free Play ◽

Exercise Frequency ◽

Aerobic Activity ◽

Initial Learning ◽

Increase In Accuracy

AbstractThe aim of this study was to examine whether people differed in change in performance across the first five blocks of an online flanker task and whether those trajectories of change were associated with self-reported aerobic or resistance exercise frequency according to age. A total of 8752 men and women aged 13–89 completed a lifestyle survey and five 45-s games (each game was a block of ~46 trials) of an online flanker task. Accuracy of the congruent and incongruent flanker stimuli was analyzed using latent class and growth curve modeling adjusting for time between blocks, whether the blocks occurred on the same or different days, education, smoking, sleep, caffeinated coffee and tea use, and Lumosity training status (“free play” or part of a “daily brain workout”). Aerobic and resistance exercise were unrelated to first block accuracies. For the more cognitively demanding incongruent flanker stimuli, aerobic activity was positively related to the linear increase in accuracy [B=0.577%, 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.112 to 1.25 per day above the weekly mean of 2.8 days] and inversely related to the quadratic deceleration of accuracy gains (B=−0.619% CI, −1.117 to −0.121 per day). An interaction of aerobic activity with age indicated that active participants younger than age 45 had a larger linear increase and a smaller quadratic deceleration compared to other participants. Age moderates the association between self-reported aerobic, but not self-reported resistance, exercise and changes in cognitive control that occur with practice during incongruent presentations across five blocks of a 45-s online, flanker task. (JINS, 2015, 21, 802–815)

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Second language (L2) proficiency, socioeconomic status (SES), and intelligence (IQ) are significant predictors of cognitive control differences among young adult unbalanced Chinese–English bilinguals

Bilingualism Language and Cognition ◽

10.1017/s1366728918000822 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 22 (04) ◽

pp. 866-882 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

ZHILONG XIE ◽

TERESA SIGNORELLI PISANO

Keyword(s):

Socioeconomic Status ◽

Second Language ◽

Young Adult ◽

Cognitive Control ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Incongruent Condition ◽

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test ◽

Card Sorting ◽

Conflict Monitoring ◽

L2 Proficiency

The current study investigates how second-language (L2) proficiency contributes to cognitive control differences among three groups of unbalanced Chinese–English bilinguals matched for socioeconomic status (SES), intelligence (IQ), education, age, culture, and L1 background. A Flanker task and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) were administered to measure conflict monitoring, inhibition, and mental set shifting. ANOVA analyses revealed faster performance for the High-L2 Group compared to the Low-L2 Group in the congruent, neutral, and incongruent conditions of the Flanker task. However, there were no group differences on the WCST. Multiple step-wise regression analyses showed that L2 proficiency was a predictor for the Flanker task performance in all three conditions, SES in the neutral and the incongruent condition, and IQ in the congruent condition. These results suggest that L2 proficiency, along with SES and IQ, contribute significantly to cognitive control differences in conflict monitoring among young-adult bilinguals.

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Cognitive Control and Self-Regulation

Encyclopedia of Geropsychology ◽

10.1007/978-981-287-082-7_158 ◽

2017 ◽

pp. 521-529

Author(s):

Hannah Schmitt ◽

Jutta Kray

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Self Regulation

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Relationship Between Language Dominance and Stimulus-Stimulus or Stimulus-Response Inhibition in Uyghur-Chinese Bilinguals with an Investigation of Speed-Accuracy Trade-Offs

Behavioral Sciences ◽

10.3390/bs9040041 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (4) ◽

pp. 41 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Wu ◽

Struys ◽

Lochtman

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Language Processing ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Trade Off ◽

Language Dominance ◽

Stimulus Response ◽

Trade Offs ◽

Monitoring Process ◽

Response Task ◽

Speed Accuracy

The effect of bilingualism on inhibition control is increasingly under ongoing exploration. The present study primarily investigated the effect of within bilingual factors (i.e., dominance types of Uyghur-Chinese bilinguals) on a Stimulus-Stimulus task (Flanker) and a Stimulus-Response task (Simon). We also compared the bilinguals' performance on each type of cognitive control task in respect to a possible trade-off between speed and accuracy. The findings showed no explicit differences on performance in response time or accuracy among balanced, L1-dominant and L2-dominant bilinguals but balanced bilinguals demonstrated a significant speed-accuracy trade-off in the overall context switching between non-conflict and conflict trials in both cognitive control tasks where monitoring process is highly demanded. Additionally, all bilinguals across all language dominance types showed a trade-off strategy in inhibition during a Stimulus-Stimulus conflict (flanker task). This evidence indicates that the differences of within bilinguals in cognitive control could lie in the monitoring process, while for all bilinguals, inhibition during a Stimulus-Stimulus conflict could be a major component in the mechanism of bilingual language processing.

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Skin and Macular Carotenoids and Their Implications for Cognitive Control and Achievement in Children (OR05-08-19)

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzz029.or05-08-19 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Caitlyn Edwards ◽

Corinne Cannavale ◽

Isabel Flemming ◽

Samantha Iwinski ◽

Anne Walk ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Function ◽

Cognitive Control ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Task Demands ◽

Interference Control ◽

Cognitive Domains ◽

Funding Sources ◽

Math Scores ◽

Heterochromatic Flicker Photometry ◽

Flanker Interference

Abstract Objectives Carotenoids are plant pigments that accumulate across several tissues including the macula and skin. However, the relationship between carotenoid deposition in retina and skin is unknown in children. Understanding these interrelationships is important, given that evidence indicates that carotenoid status is a marker of cognitive health in childhood. Importantly, the selectivity of cognitive function to carotenoids in different tissues remains understudied. The present work investigated associations between retinal and skin carotenoids and their implications for children's cognitive function and achievement. Methods Children 7–12 years old (N = 50) participated in the study. Retinal carotenoid status, i.e., macular pigment optical density (MPOD), was assessed using heterochromatic flicker photometry. Skin carotenoids were assessed using reflection spectroscopy at the fingertip using the Veggiemeter. Academic achievement was assessed using the Woodcock Johnson IV test and a modified Eriksen flanker task to assess children's ability for selective attention or interference control. Results There was a significant positive correlation between skin and retinal carotenoid levels (rs = 0.29, P = 0.02). Skin carotenoids were positively related to reading (rs = 0.42, P = 0.001) and math scores (rs = 0.34, P = 0.009). However, skin carotenoids were not significantly related to flanker interference scores (p's > 0.05). On the other hand, MPOD was positively related to reading (rs = 0.25, P = 0.04) but not math (rs = 0.12, P = 0.20). Further, MPOD was inversely related to flanker interference scores for reaction time (rs = −0.29, P = 0.02) and accuracy (rs = −0.28, P = 0.03), indicating that children with higher retinal carotenoids exhibited superior ability to maintain cognitive control performance when faced with greater task demands. Conclusions These findings demonstrate that carotenoid levels in skin and retina are correlated in children. These findings further suggest that carotenoid status in children is associated with cognition, perhaps selectively across site of accumulation and cognitive domains. Funding Sources This work was supported by funds provided by the Egg Nutrition Center.

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Anticipating Conflict Facilitates Controlled Stimulus-response Selection

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience ◽

10.1162/jocn.2009.21136 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 21 (8) ◽

pp. 1461-1472 ◽

Cited By ~ 21

Author(s):

Ángel Correa ◽

Anling Rao ◽

Anna C. Nobre

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Temporal Resolution ◽

Response Selection ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Conflict Detection ◽

High Temporal Resolution ◽

Proactive Control ◽

Conflict Monitoring ◽

Sequential Effects ◽

Monitoring Model

Cognitive control can be triggered in reaction to previous conflict, as suggested by the finding of sequential effects in conflict tasks. Can control also be triggered proactively by presenting cues predicting conflict (“proactive control”)? We exploited the high temporal resolution of ERPs and controlled for sequential effects to ask whether proactive control based on anticipating conflict modulates neural activity related to cognitive control, as may be predicted from the conflict-monitoring model. ERPs associated with conflict detection (N2) were measured during a cued flanker task. Symbolic cues were either informative or neutral with respect to whether the target involved conflicting or congruent responses. Sequential effects were controlled by analyzing the congruency of the previous trial. The results showed that cueing conflict facilitated conflict resolution and reduced the N2 latency. Other potentials (frontal N1 and P3) were also modulated by cueing conflict. Cueing effects were most evident after congruent than after incongruent trials. This interaction between cueing and sequential effects suggests neural overlap between the control networks triggered by proactive and reactive signals. This finding clarifies why previous neuroimaging studies, in which reactive sequential effects were not controlled, have rarely found anticipatory effects upon conflict-related activity. Finally, the high temporal resolution of ERPs was critical to reveal a temporal modulation of conflict detection by proactive control. This novel finding suggests that anticipating conflict speeds up conflict detection and resolution. Recent research suggests that this anticipatory mechanism may be mediated by preactivation of ACC during the preparatory interval.

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Modulating Proactive Cognitive Control by Reward: Differential Anticipatory Effects of Performance Contingent and Non-Contingent Rewards

10.31234/osf.io/3x2nc ◽

2018 ◽

Author(s):

Motonori Yamaguchi

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Task Performance ◽

Correct Response ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Incorrect Response ◽

Response Speed ◽

Flanker Effect ◽

Contingent Reward ◽

Sequential Modulation ◽

Contingent Rewards

The present study investigated the influences of two different forms of reward presentation in modulating cognitive control. In three experiments, participants performed a flanker task for which one-third of trials were precued for a chance of obtaining a reward (reward trials). In Experiment 1, a reward was provided if participants made the correct response on reward trials but a penalty was given if they made an incorrect response on these trials. The anticipation of this performance-contingent reward increased response speed and reduced the flanker effect but had little influence on the sequential modulation of the flanker effect after incompatible trials. In Experiment 2, participants obtained a reward randomly on two-thirds of the precued reward trials and were given a penalty on the remaining one-third, regardless of their performance. The anticipation of this non-contingent reward had little influence on the overall response speed or flanker effect but reduced the sequential modulation of the flanker effect after incompatible trials. Experiment 3 also used performance non-contingent rewards but participants were randomly penalized more often than they were rewarded; non-contingent penalty had little influence on the sequential modulation of the flanker effect. None of the three experiments showed a reliable influence of the actual acquisition of rewards on task performance. These results indicate anticipatory effects of performance contingent and non-contingent rewards on cognitive control with little evidence of aftereffects.

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Moderate aerobic exercise, but not anticipation of exercise, improves cognitive control

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0242270 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 15 (11) ◽

pp. e0242270

Author(s):

Maximilian Bergelt ◽

Vanessa Fung Yuan ◽

Richard O’Brien ◽

Laura E. Middleton ◽

Wellington Martins dos Santos

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Aerobic Exercise ◽

Primary Outcome ◽

Flanker Task ◽

Post Intervention ◽

Post Exercise ◽

Linear Mixed Effects ◽

Mixed Effects Modeling ◽

Single Bout ◽

Main Effects

Background Evidence suggests a single bout of exercise can improve cognitive control. However, many studies only include assessments after exercise. It is unclear whether exercise changes as a result, or in anticipation, of exercise. Objective To examine changes in cognitive control due to moderate aerobic exercise, and anticipation of such exercise. Methods Thirty-one young healthy adults (mean age 22 years; 55% women) completed three conditions (randomized order): 1) exercise (participants anticipated and completed exercise); 2) anticipation (participants anticipated exercise but completed rest); and 3) rest (participants anticipated and completed rest). Cognitive control was assessed with a modified Flanker task at three timepoints: (1) early (20 min pre-intervention, pre-reveal in anticipation session); (2) pre-intervention (after reveal); and (3) post-intervention. An accuracy-weighted response time (RTLISAS) was the primary outcome, analyzed with a linear mixed effects modeling approach. Results There was an interaction between condition and time (p = 0.003) and between session and time (p = 0.015). RTLISAS was better post-exercise than post-rest and post-deception, but was similar across conditions at other timepoints. RTLISAS improved across time in session 1 and session 2, but did not improve over time in session 3. There were also main effects of condition (p = 0.024), session (p = 0.005), time (p<0.001), and congruency (p<0.001). Conclusions Cognitive control improved after moderate aerobic exercise, but not in anticipation of exercise. Improvements on a Flanker task were also observed across sessions and time, indicative of a learning effect that should be considered in study design and analyses.

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How Does Ritualized Behavior Lower Anxiety? The Role of Cognitive Load and Conscious Preoccupation in Anxiety Reduction

Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric ◽

10.2478/slgr-2020-0019 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 62 (1) ◽

pp. 187-205

Author(s):

Aneta Niczyporuk

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Attentional Control ◽

Self Regulation ◽

Underlying Mechanism ◽

Anxiety Reduction ◽

Long Run ◽

Paradoxical Effects ◽

Control Load ◽

Anxiety Levels

Abstract Although rituals are believed to lower anxiety, the underlying mechanism of anxiety reduction has not been explained well enough. According to Boyer and Liénard (2006), ritualized behavior decreases the anxiety levels because it swamps working memory. This blocks anxious thoughts’ access to consciousness. As a result, ritualized behavior lowers anxiety temporarily but maintains it in the long run. In the article, I analyze what processes should be engaged in ritualized behavior to bring the aforementioned outcomes. I propose that ritualized behavior has anxiolytic properties if it preoccupies consciousness without placing too many demands on cognitive control. While conscious preoccupation with ritualized behavior should reduce anxiety, cognitive control load related to efforts to concentrate on ritualized behavior may bring immediate paradoxical effects of self-regulation, i.e., anxiety increases. Moreover, since anxiety disrupts attentional control capabilities, ritualized behavior should not be too cognitively demanding if an anxious person is to perform it.

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