Using Eye-Tracking Technology to Compare Hazard Detection on the Road Versus a Driving Simulator at Night Across Two Age Groups

Abstract This study explored age differences and scanning strategies for critical events using a driving simulator with eye-tracking technology. One critical skill in driving is to efficiently scan the environment. Ten young(M=26y) and 10 old(M=65y) healthy adults drove a wearing Tobii-Pro Glasses. The software analyzes areas of interest (AOI) for “percent time of fixation” as well as illustrative “heat maps” of duration of fixation. At a four-way-stop, the young fixated at the road ahead (25% fixation time), dashboard (29%), more often than left/right of their car (15%). The old fixed on the road ahead (21%) but spent more time outside the car (23%). At the hidden sign, older drivers fixated on the environment outside the road ahead more than younger drivers (26% versus 20%), but both had increased fixation to the right side of the vehicle (Y-23%, O-24%) with this event, likely looking for the sign. Heat maps of the hidden sign illustrate this, suggesting older drivers may more efficiently scan their environment. Other possibilities include the young trusting the simulator, young/old scan differently, or interference of previous simulator experience. Simulator outcomes showed age differences on gas-pedal-reaction times suggesting that older adults are more cautious, slowing down faster with critical events. Limitations include small sample and limited studies have used eye-tracking technology in driving. This study raises interesting questions, especially for medically-at-risk drivers with visual impairments. Using the eye-tracking may enhance targeting specific strategies for a variety of impairments as well as establishing a baseline of typical drivers’ visual scanning habits.

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The use of simulator studies to assess the impact of ITS services on road users behaviour

MATEC Web of Conferences ◽

10.1051/matecconf/201823102009 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 231 ◽

pp. 02009 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Małgorzata Pędzierska ◽

Tomasz Kamiński

Keyword(s):

Traffic Safety ◽

Driving Simulator ◽

Road Traffic ◽

Age Groups ◽

Weather Conditions ◽

The Road ◽

Traffic Efficiency ◽

Road Traffic Safety ◽

On The Road ◽

The Impact

The subject of this publication is the use of top-of-the-range driving simulators to study the impact of ITS services on the road safety. The aim of the article is to describe the assumptions of simulation studies carried out as part of the RID 4D project and to present the method of building research scenarios. The article discusses the catalogue of ITS services of the greatest importance to the Road Traffic Safety and traffic efficiency developed under the project. Then, services from the catalogue were specified, which were tested on the driving simulator of the Motor Transport Institute. The tests included sections of a dual-lane expressway. As a result of the work, four scenarios were created containing various dangerous events and variable message boards informing drivers about the danger and/or limiting the permitted speed. During the simulation, a set of several dozen parameters related to vehicle motion was recorded, in particular the distance to the vehicle ahead, time to collision with another vehicle or object on the road, speed, intensity of braking and acceleration. The tests were performed for good and bad weather conditions on a 60-person study group. The division into age groups 18-24, 25-50 and above 50 years was applied. The research showed a difference in the way drivers of static signs and speed limits on the variable message signs affect drivers. For variable messages signs, there was a greater decrease in speed than in the case of static signs.

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Research on the experimental road signs perception time and their intelligibility

MATEC Web of Conferences ◽

10.1051/matecconf/201823102005 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 231 ◽

pp. 02005

Author(s):

Andrzej Grabowski ◽

Jarosław Jankowski ◽

Mikołaj Kruszewski

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Road Safety ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

The Road ◽

Road Signs ◽

Safety Research ◽

Perception Time ◽

On The Road ◽

And Performance ◽

Tracking Technology

Eye tracking technology is often used in road safety research. Eye tracker are used during real and simulated driving to investigate driver’s behaviour. It is also used for assessing influence of new elements, like experimental road signs or road signs from different country, on driver’s behaviour and performance. However it should be noted that, the probability that the signs will be noticed cannot be solely assessed by eye tracking data. Therefore there is a need to complete the results with additional sources of data, eg questionnaire study. In the paper results of research concerning road signs perception carried out with 33 volunteers are presented. Twelve boards with different road situations in the form of photos taken from the driver's perspective were prepared. After the exposure, the volunteer answered questions about the memorized information presented on the road signs.

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Advance Information on the Road: A Simulator Study of the Effect of Road Markings

Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society ◽

10.1177/001872087601800601 ◽

1976 ◽

Vol 18 (6) ◽

pp. 521-532 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Harald Witt ◽

Carl G. Hoyos

Keyword(s):

Driving Simulator ◽

Driving Behavior ◽

Speed Profile ◽

The Road ◽

Positive Effects ◽

Road Signs ◽

Advance Information ◽

Simulator Study ◽

On The Road ◽

Accident Statistics

Accident statistics and studies of driving behavior have shown repeatedly that curved roads are hazardous. It was hypothesized that the safety of curves could be improved by indicating in advance the course of the road in a more effective way than do traditional road signs. A code of sequences of stripes put on right edge of the pavement was developed to indicate to the driver the radius of the curve ahead. The main characteristic of this code was the frequency of transitions from code elements to gaps between elements. The effect of these markings was investigated on a driving simulator. Twelve subjects drove on simulated roads of different curvature and with different placement of the code in the approach zone. Some positive effects of the advance information could be observed. The subjects drove more steadily, more precisely, and with a more suitable speed profile.

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Good Intentions? Willingness to Engage with Technology on the Road and in a Driving Simulator

Driver Distraction ◽

10.1201/9780429466809-8 ◽

2018 ◽

pp. 147-176 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Katie J. Parnell ◽

Neville A. Stanton ◽

Katherine L. Plant

Keyword(s):

Driving Simulator ◽

The Road ◽

On The Road ◽

Willingness To Engage

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Analysis of Preference for Autonomous Driving Under Different Traffic Conditions Using a Driving Simulator

Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics ◽

10.20965/jrm.2015.p0660 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 27 (6) ◽

pp. 660-670 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Udara Eshan Manawadu ◽

◽

Masaaki Ishikawa ◽

Mitsuhiro Kamezaki ◽

Shigeki Sugano ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Autonomous Vehicles ◽

Driving Simulator ◽

Autonomous Driving ◽

Driving Experience ◽

The Road ◽

Traffic Conditions ◽

Passenger Vehicles ◽

New Type ◽

On The Road ◽

Near Future

<div class=""abs_img""><img src=""[disp_template_path]/JRM/abst-image/00270006/08.jpg"" width=""300"" /> Driving simulator</div>Intelligent passenger vehicles with autonomous capabilities will be commonplace on our roads in the near future. These vehicles will reshape the existing relationship between the driver and vehicle. Therefore, to create a new type of rewarding relationship, it is important to analyze when drivers prefer autonomous vehicles to manually-driven (conventional) vehicles. This paper documents a driving simulator-based study conducted to identify the preferences and individual driving experiences of novice and experienced drivers of autonomous and conventional vehicles under different traffic and road conditions. We first developed a simplified driving simulator that could connect to different driver-vehicle interfaces (DVI). We then created virtual environments consisting of scenarios and events that drivers encounter in real-world driving, and we implemented fully autonomous driving. We then conducted experiments to clarify how the autonomous driving experience differed for the two groups. The results showed that experienced drivers opt for conventional driving overall, mainly due to the flexibility and driving pleasure it offers, while novices tend to prefer autonomous driving due to its inherent ease and safety. A further analysis indicated that drivers preferred to use both autonomous and conventional driving methods interchangeably, depending on the road and traffic conditions.

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Good intentions: drivers’ decisions to engage with technology on the road and in a driving simulator

Cognition Technology & Work ◽

10.1007/s10111-018-0504-0 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 20 (4) ◽

pp. 597-619 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Katie J. Parnell ◽

Neville A. Stanton ◽

Katherine L. Plant

Keyword(s):

Driving Simulator ◽

The Road ◽

On The Road

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Comparing Young and Old Adults’ Night Hazard Detection With Driving Simulation and on Road

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igab046.1020 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. 265-266

Author(s):

Anne Dickerson ◽

Juliette Leonardo

Keyword(s):

Older Adults ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Repeated Measures ◽

Age Groups ◽

Driving Simulation ◽

Younger Adults ◽

Repeated Measures Design ◽

Hazard Detection ◽

Road Performance ◽

Healthy Community

Abstract While there is validity of using driving simulation as a proxy for on-road performance, few studies have examined hazard detection at night. Night driving is a self-restricting practice with little evidence demonstrating the need with healthy older adults. This study’s objective was to analyze night driving using eye-tracking technology examining differences between on-road/simulated drives and older/younger adults. A 2 (old, young) x 2 (simulator, on-road) repeated-measures design measured three roadway “hazards” of pedestrains looking at their cell phone while posed to cross the roadway. Pupil glances were recorded using outcome measures of total fixation duration, number of fixations, and time-to-first fixation for the pedestrains on-road and on a specifically designed scenario matching the on-road route. Thirty-three healthy, community-living drivers age 65+ years (N=16) and drivers age 20-40 years (N=17) completed both drives. Using non-parametric statistics, results demonstrated that night hazard detection was similar across driving conditions except for time-to-first fixation, which was faster on-road for both age groups (p<.001). At some hazard locations, there were significant differences between the two age groups, with older adults taking longer to initially see hazards. Results suggest, older adults detected hazards similarly to younger adults, especially during on-road performance, suggesting avoidance of night driving may not be necessary. Results also support using driving simulation as a proxy for on-road with night driving needing to be incorporated. Additionally, eye-tracking has the potential for research in hazard detection with emphasis on the time-to-first fixation outcomes when considering driving analysis.

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External Human–Machine Interfaces: The Effect of Display Location on Crossing Intentions and Eye Movements

Information ◽

10.3390/info11010013 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 13 ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

Y. B. Eisma ◽

S. van Bergen ◽

S. M. ter Brake ◽

M. T. T. Hensen ◽

W. J. Tempelaar ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Eye Movements ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Relevant Information ◽

The Road ◽

Road Users ◽

Human Machine Interfaces ◽

On The Road ◽

Display Location ◽

Press Time ◽

Better Than

In the future, automated cars may feature external human–machine interfaces (eHMIs) to communicate relevant information to other road users. However, it is currently unknown where on the car the eHMI should be placed. In this study, 61 participants each viewed 36 animations of cars with eHMIs on either the roof, windscreen, grill, above the wheels, or a projection on the road. The eHMI showed ‘Waiting’ combined with a walking symbol 1.2 s before the car started to slow down, or ‘Driving’ while the car continued driving. Participants had to press and hold the spacebar when they felt it safe to cross. Results showed that, averaged over the period when the car approached and slowed down, the roof, windscreen, and grill eHMIs yielded the best performance (i.e., the highest spacebar press time). The projection and wheels eHMIs scored relatively poorly, yet still better than no eHMI. The wheels eHMI received a relatively high percentage of spacebar presses when the car appeared from a corner, a situation in which the roof, windscreen, and grill eHMIs were out of view. Eye-tracking analyses showed that the projection yielded dispersed eye movements, as participants scanned back and forth between the projection and the car. It is concluded that eHMIs should be presented on multiple sides of the car. A projection on the road is visually effortful for pedestrians, as it causes them to divide their attention between the projection and the car itself.

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Validity of Mental Workload Measures in a Driving Simulation Environment

Journal of Advanced Transportation ◽

10.1155/2018/5679151 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 2018 ◽

pp. 1-11 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Francesco Galante ◽

Fabrizio Bracco ◽

Carlo Chiorri ◽

Luigi Pariota ◽

Luigi Biggero ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Driving Simulator ◽

Mental Workload ◽

Critical Issue ◽

Simulation Environment ◽

Driving Simulators ◽

The Road ◽

Mixed Support ◽

Vehicle Systems ◽

Driving Task ◽

On The Road

Automated in-vehicle systems and related human-machine interfaces can contribute to alleviating the workload of drivers. However, each new functionality can also introduce a new source of workload, due to the need to attend to new tasks and thus requires careful testing before being implemented in vehicles. Driving simulators have become a viable alternative to on-the-road tests, since they allow optimal experimental control and high safety. However, for each driving simulator to be a useful research tool, for each specific task an adequate correspondence must be established between the behavior in the simulator and the behavior on the road, namely, the simulator absolute and relative validity. In this study we investigated the validity of a driving-simulator-based experimental environment for research on mental workload measures by comparing behavioral and subjective measures of workload of the same large group of participants in a simulated and on-road driving task on the same route. Consistent with previous studies, mixed support was found for both types of validity, although results suggest that allowing more and/or longer familiarization sessions with the simulator may be needed to increase its validity. Simulator sickness also emerged as a critical issue for the generalizability of the results.

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