Kesan Variasi Harga Minyak Terhadap Corak Perjalanan Pelajar Institusi Pengajian Tinggi

In Malaysia, most of the studies conducted on the effects of increase in fuel prices have focused on a group of people who have a regular monthly income. Little attention is given to the younger generation without income, especially among students in higher education. Malaysian students are also among the highest group of people who make daily trips. The increase in fuel prices has also increased the daily cost of students and can affect their daily commute. This study aims to examine the specific effects of the increase in the prices of fuel on the travel patterns of young people in higher education institutions. A total of 596 respondents among university students were involved in this study, which selected randomly from public and private universities in Malaysia. By focusing on the patterns of travel before and after the increase in fuel prices, the respondents were asked to fill out a questionnaire related to their weekly trip activities. From the survey conducted, there are variations in the choice of transport mode for educational purposes and personal activities of the respondents. Among the preferred mode of transport include driving cars, riding bikes, walking and taking public services. However, the highest mode of transport of the movement of respondents from residential areas to campus based on the weekly frequencies are walking and driving cars. Whereas, for personal purposes, students are most likely to prefer driving cars. Research shows, the rise in fuel prices do not provide a significant change to the travel patterns of the respondents. However, slight changes in the pattern of respondents’ travel have occurred, such as the reduction in the frequency of personal vehicle used and the increase in the frequency of sharing the vehicle.

345 A Novel Study Exploring the Hidden Cost of Insufficient Investment in Computer Technology in a District General Hospital

Introduction The NHS’ move towards increasing digitisation is limited by inadequate resourcing. It is estimated 70% of a junior doctor’s time is spent completing computer-based administrative work. Aging and insufficient equipment leads to inefficiency. The objective of this study is to investigate the hidden cost of insufficient and poorly performing computer technology. Method Surveys were disseminated to doctors and data was collected regarding designation, ward, salary and estimated ‘minutes-waiting’ for computers to become free (CF) and to load (CL). Results 33 surveys were completed. The hospital-wide average CF and CL were 25 minutes and 31.06 minutes respectively, with a corresponding average daily cost per doctor of £10.16 (CF) and £12.63 (CL), totalling £22.79/doctor/day. In the highest-expense ward, CF (31.66 minutes) and CL (38.33 minutes) equated to £30.28/doctor/day. Following acquisition of new hardware and re-audit, CL was significantly reduced to 20.4 minutes (p = 0.0142). Conclusions This study highlights the hidden cost of insufficient, poorly performing hardware. Every day the total cost of time-wasted greatly surpasses the cost of a single computer unit, illustrating the false economy of reduced capital investment in computer technology.

Cost evaluation in adult ICU: α two-year study in a Greek State Hospital

Background: During the last decades the combination of international economic and healthcare crisis has led to pressure on healthcare systems and has made financial evaluations particularly important.Aim: To measure the total cost in ICUs, to analyze its components, and their changes during the study period.Method and Material: All cost components in four cost categories (direct-variable, direct-fixed, indirect-variable, and indirect-fixed) of all patients admitted in a 6-bed mixed type adult ICU in a general (non-university) hospital of northern Greece in two consecutive periods, with total duration 2 years was measured. The direct-variable cost (medications, consumables, and diagnostic tests) was assessed with bottom-up (micro-costing) method while for the cost components of rest three categories the top-down (attributable costing) was used. Results: In a 331 patients’ sample with 2823 total patient days, the sum cost was 2,417,788€ (1,370,420€ and 1,047,368€ in 1st and 2nd period respectively). The direct variable cost was 897,866.07€ (37.14%), the direct-fixed 1,049,068.6€ (43.39%), the indirect-variable 45,210.6€ (1.87%), and the indirect-fixed 425,643.0€ (17.60%). The mean daily cost per patient was 835.62€ and 885.35€, and the total cost per patient was 7,967.6€ and 6,587.2€ in the two periods of study respectively. The total cost of all non-survivors’ patients (N=85, 25.7%) was 595,009.1€ and the efficiency cost per survivor 9,828.4€. The mean daily cost and the total cost per survivor was 840.8€ and 7,409.7€ while for non-survivors was και 908.4€ and 7,000.1€ respectively. During the second study period, a reduction in total costs was observed and especially in direct-variable category attributed mainly to the prices of medicines consumables, and staff gradual costs reductions.Conclusions: Changes in cost categories vary over time due to social and financial factors while the variables as the ICU environment or patient’s characteristics as severity of disease are the main cost drivers. Monitoring and recording of cost components variance would help with valuable information to healthcare managers, doctors, or nursing leaders. Extending this study with a multicenter to more ICUs could provide clearer conclusions about cost variability.

Optimal Sizing of On-Board Energy Storage Systems and Stationary Charging Infrastructures for a Catenary-Free Tram

This paper introduces an optimal sizing method for a catenary-free tram, in which both on-board energy storage systems and charging infrastructures are considered. To quantitatively analyze the trade-off between available charging time and economic operation, a daily cost function containing a whole life-time cost of energy storage and an expense of energy supplies is formulated for the optimal sizing problem. A mixed particle swarm optimization algorithm is utilized to find optimal solutions for three schemes: (1) ultracapacitors storage systems with fast-charging at each station; (2) battery storage systems with slow-charging at starting and final stations; (3) battery storage systems with fast-swapping at swapping station. A case study on an existing catenary-free tramline in China is applied to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method. Results show that a daily-cost reduction over 30% and a weight reduction over 40% can be achieved by scheme 2, and a cost saving of 34.23% and a weight reduction of 32.46% can be obtained by scheme 3.

Product Mix Optimization for an Oil Field Operating Company

In this study, a mathematical model is formulated to select the optimal product mix of wells in terms of numbers and types of wells that helps to maximize profit. The optimization model comprises two main components, the first component is revenue which includes forecasting of production and oil price, and the second component is cost which includes capital and operating costs. In addition, the model considers all related constraints such as budget, production targets, surface facility limitations, drilling rigs availability and others. Time has influence on the model, since its output is not limited only to the types and numbers of wells to be drilled during the planned period, but also when each well to be drilled for the same plan. Actual planning data for three consecutive years is used for model testing. The results show that 42% to 47% cost saving can be achieved by using the model. The analysis shows that with every 10% increase in oil price, the profit increases by about 6%. Also, it shows that the number of rigs and the rig daily cost affect the profit tremendously, where by reducing these two parameters by 50% an increase of 66% in oil profit can be achieved. The study confirms that oil field operating companies can stand a better chance of maximizing their profit by using product mix optimization model to define the optimum schedule for the number of wells, type of wells and time of drilling.

Daily Costs and Cost Effectiveness of Glaucoma Fixed Combinations in China

Background. The aim of this study was to compare the daily costs and cost effectiveness of fixed combination glaucoma drugs in China. Methods. This study included the following fixed combination drugs: brinzolamide 1% and timolol 0.5% (Azarga; Alcon, Inc., Fort Worth, TX, USA), travoprost 0.004% and timolol 0.5% (DuoTrav; Alcon, Inc.), bimatoprost 0.03% and timolol 0.5% (Ganfort; Allergan, Inc., Dublin, Ireland), and latanoprost 0.005% and timolol 0.5% (Xalacom; Pfizer, Inc., New York, NY, USA). Five bottles of each drug were measured. The mean actual volume, mean actual number of drops, volume per drop, daily cost, yearly cost, and per mmHg reduction cost for each drug were calculated. Results. The volumes per drop ranged from 32.61 ± 2.90 μl (DuoTrav) to 24.38 ± 0.23 μl (Ganfort). The number of usage days per bottle varied from 36 days (DuoTrav) to 61 days (Ganfort). Azarga had the lowest daily cost ($0.23) and yearly cost ($84.72), while DuoTrav had the highest daily cost ($0.79) and yearly cost ($287.02). Azarga costed $2.17–$3.30 per mmHg intraocular pressure reduction, which was lower than the other three drugs. For the prostaglandin and ß-adrenergic blocker FCs, Ganfort had the lowest daily cost ($0.35) and per mmHg reduction cost (from $3.40 to $4.04). Conclusions. The daily costs of these drugs were significantly different, with Azarga having the lowest daily cost and best cost effectiveness. For the prostaglandin and β-adrenergic blocker fixed combinations, Ganfort was the most economical choice with its lower daily cost and per mmHg reduction cost. The results of this study could provide drug selection guidance from an economic perspective, but various factors should be considered when making a decision.

Influence of Government Price Regulation on the Price, Volume and Spending of Antibiotics in China: A Controlled Interrupted Time Series Study

Background: Chinese government established maximum retail prices for antibiotics listed in China’s National Reimbursement List in February 2013. This study aimed to analyze the impact of pharmaceutical price regulation on the price, volume and spending of antibiotics in China. Methods: An interrupted time series design with comparison series was used to examine impacts of the policy changes on average daily cost, monthly hospital purchase volume and spending of the 11 price-regulated antibiotics and 40 priceunregulated antibiotics in 699 hospitals. One intervention point was applied to assess the impact of policy. Results: After government price regulation, compared to price-unregulated antibiotics, the average daily cost of the price-regulated group declined rapidly (β=-5.68, P<.001). The average hospital monthly purchase spending of priceregulated antibiotics also decreased rapidly (β=-0.49, P<.010) and a positive trend change (β=0.04, P<.001) in average hospital spending of price-unregulated antibiotics was found. Conclusion: Government regulation can reduce the prices and spending of price-regulated antibiotics. To control increasing expenditure, besides price caps regulation, factors determining drug utilization also need to be considered in policy designing.

Application and Evaluation of SPD Based Logistics Management Model for Medical Consumables in Clinical Nursing Departments

Background: Supply, processing, and distribution (SPD) model is sparingly used in hospitals in China. We evaluated its effects on the management efficiency, quality control, and operating costs of medical consumables (MCs) in the clinical nursing surroundings in a single Chinese hospital-Anhui Provincial Hospital from 2014 to 2015. Methods: Amount-based packages (ABP) and procedure-based packages (PBP) models were created. They were introduced the use of quick response (QR) code scanning for using in clinical nursing departments (CNDs). Questionnaires were prepared by referring to previous literature and using Delphi method repeatedly, further discussed and formalized. Partial results of the formal questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS. Results: Frequency of MCs claims reduced without any requirements of MCs in 70% of CNDs. Average time spent on the inventory per week decreased and the time required to procure MCs reduced. Moreover, the average satisfaction score with MCs management increased, reaching 100%. Average space occupied by MCs decreased significantly, reducing by 1.2444m3. Overall, 100% of the respondents concluded that the management of MCs improved effectively and the inventory turnover rate had accelerated. The cost of MCs decreased by 15% with more than 10% increase in in-hospital amount, and the average daily cost of MCs also showed decrease. Conclusion: SPD can improve the efficiency of MCs management in CNDs, reducing medical risks and disputes, saving hospital operating costs, and decreasing capital occupation.