Incidental and intentional acquisition of multiword expressions from audio-visual input: The effects of typographically enhanced captions and repetition

<p>This research project aims to extend the line of inquiry on pedagogical interventions intended to help second language (L2) learners make better progress of their mastery of multiword expressions (MWEs). Existing studies on these interventions revealed a propensity towards exclusivity in terms of input modality, item type and learning condition. Firstly, there are far more MWE studies in the context of unimodal input, e.g., written input. It is only recently that the potential of audio-visual input (i.e., L2 viewing) has been explored for MWE learning. Secondly, previous studies have by and large focused on certain types of MWEs, such as collocations. While there is merit in focusing on a certain type of item, such studies do not represent the materials that L2 learners are often exposed to. Further, authentic videos entail diverse MWE types, providing a stronger reason to include more than one type of target item. Thirdly, many MWE interventions are investigated exclusively under one of the learning conditions, i.e., intentional or incidental learning conditions. Hulstijn’s (2001) criterion is adopted to distinguish these two learning conditions, in that the presence of test announcement characterises the intentional learning condition. Due to this tendency towards a dichotomy of learning conditions, many factors known to facilitate MWE learning have been investigated under one of the learning conditions only. Two such factors are repetition and typographic enhancement. While repetition is well established as beneficial for MWE acquisition, evidence for this is mainly furnished by studies on incidental learning through written input. Therefore, the aim of this research project is to assess how repetition, operationalised as repeated viewing, influences MWE acquisition under both learning conditions. Similarly, although typographic enhancement has been shown to draw learners’ attention and promote MWE uptake, this positive evidence is mostly observed in incidental learning studies. As such, whether typographically-enhanced MWEs are indeed learned better than unenhanced MWEs under intentional learning conditions is still under-researched. Importantly, whether typographic enhancement in captioned viewing leads to superior learning compared to normal captions is unknown. This is one of the aims of the research project, in which different caption conditions are created to explore their effectiveness in facilitating MWE learning. Of further interest is whether MWE learning under different caption conditions would modulate the effect of repetition. This is motivated by the assumption that typographic enhancement might eliminate the need for repetition. To answer the research questions, two studies differentiated by the presence of test announcement were carried out. For both studies, ESL learners watched a video containing target MWEs under one of six conditions, which differed in terms of caption condition (no captions, normal captions or enhanced captions) and the number of viewing times (once or twice). MWE learning was assessed through tests that tap into form and meaning knowledge at the level of recall and recognition. Though not part of the research questions, the effects of caption condition and repetition on content comprehension were also assessed. The findings of both studies revealed trends that are consistent with literature on MWE learning and vocabulary learning in general. Firstly, both types of captions promoted better form recall knowledge compared to uncaptioned viewing. This was found to be true under both incidental and intentional learning conditions. Secondly, typographically enhanced captions led to better form recall compared to normal captions, but only under the intentional learning conditions. Under the incidental learning conditions, the effects of L2 viewing with typograhically enhanced captions on form recall appeared to be similar to viewing with normal captions. The findings also suggest that the presence of typographically enhanced captions reduced the number of viewings needed to make incidental gains in form recall knowledge. In addition, while repeated viewing under all caption conditions led to better knowledge of form under the incidental learning conditions, the effect of repetition was not found under the intentional learning conditions. This aligns well with the supposition that fewer repetitions are needed for intentional learning. Thirdly, neither repetition nor caption condition had an effect on the acquisition of MWE meanings under both learning conditions. Finally, vocabulary knowledge played a significant role in the amount of MWE learning that takes place, especially so when learners were not forewarned of MWE tests. Taken as a whole, the findings of this research project support the use of captions for L2 viewing as a way to foster MWE acquisition, at least at the level of form acquisition. The use of typographically enhanced captions, however, may have adverse effects on content comprehension. As such, the findings of this research project have meaningful implications concerning when typographically enhanced captions and repeated viewing should be used to optimise MWE learning through L2 viewing.</p>

Incidental and intentional acquisition of multiword expressions from audio-visual input: The effects of typographically enhanced captions and repetition

<p>This research project aims to extend the line of inquiry on pedagogical interventions intended to help second language (L2) learners make better progress of their mastery of multiword expressions (MWEs). Existing studies on these interventions revealed a propensity towards exclusivity in terms of input modality, item type and learning condition. Firstly, there are far more MWE studies in the context of unimodal input, e.g., written input. It is only recently that the potential of audio-visual input (i.e., L2 viewing) has been explored for MWE learning. Secondly, previous studies have by and large focused on certain types of MWEs, such as collocations. While there is merit in focusing on a certain type of item, such studies do not represent the materials that L2 learners are often exposed to. Further, authentic videos entail diverse MWE types, providing a stronger reason to include more than one type of target item. Thirdly, many MWE interventions are investigated exclusively under one of the learning conditions, i.e., intentional or incidental learning conditions. Hulstijn’s (2001) criterion is adopted to distinguish these two learning conditions, in that the presence of test announcement characterises the intentional learning condition. Due to this tendency towards a dichotomy of learning conditions, many factors known to facilitate MWE learning have been investigated under one of the learning conditions only. Two such factors are repetition and typographic enhancement. While repetition is well established as beneficial for MWE acquisition, evidence for this is mainly furnished by studies on incidental learning through written input. Therefore, the aim of this research project is to assess how repetition, operationalised as repeated viewing, influences MWE acquisition under both learning conditions. Similarly, although typographic enhancement has been shown to draw learners’ attention and promote MWE uptake, this positive evidence is mostly observed in incidental learning studies. As such, whether typographically-enhanced MWEs are indeed learned better than unenhanced MWEs under intentional learning conditions is still under-researched. Importantly, whether typographic enhancement in captioned viewing leads to superior learning compared to normal captions is unknown. This is one of the aims of the research project, in which different caption conditions are created to explore their effectiveness in facilitating MWE learning. Of further interest is whether MWE learning under different caption conditions would modulate the effect of repetition. This is motivated by the assumption that typographic enhancement might eliminate the need for repetition. To answer the research questions, two studies differentiated by the presence of test announcement were carried out. For both studies, ESL learners watched a video containing target MWEs under one of six conditions, which differed in terms of caption condition (no captions, normal captions or enhanced captions) and the number of viewing times (once or twice). MWE learning was assessed through tests that tap into form and meaning knowledge at the level of recall and recognition. Though not part of the research questions, the effects of caption condition and repetition on content comprehension were also assessed. The findings of both studies revealed trends that are consistent with literature on MWE learning and vocabulary learning in general. Firstly, both types of captions promoted better form recall knowledge compared to uncaptioned viewing. This was found to be true under both incidental and intentional learning conditions. Secondly, typographically enhanced captions led to better form recall compared to normal captions, but only under the intentional learning conditions. Under the incidental learning conditions, the effects of L2 viewing with typograhically enhanced captions on form recall appeared to be similar to viewing with normal captions. The findings also suggest that the presence of typographically enhanced captions reduced the number of viewings needed to make incidental gains in form recall knowledge. In addition, while repeated viewing under all caption conditions led to better knowledge of form under the incidental learning conditions, the effect of repetition was not found under the intentional learning conditions. This aligns well with the supposition that fewer repetitions are needed for intentional learning. Thirdly, neither repetition nor caption condition had an effect on the acquisition of MWE meanings under both learning conditions. Finally, vocabulary knowledge played a significant role in the amount of MWE learning that takes place, especially so when learners were not forewarned of MWE tests. Taken as a whole, the findings of this research project support the use of captions for L2 viewing as a way to foster MWE acquisition, at least at the level of form acquisition. The use of typographically enhanced captions, however, may have adverse effects on content comprehension. As such, the findings of this research project have meaningful implications concerning when typographically enhanced captions and repeated viewing should be used to optimise MWE learning through L2 viewing.</p>

Online Education Optimization Based on Edge Computing under the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has strongly affected education in China, even if education departments and corresponding schools took a series of measures to manage online education of the school’s new semester in China, including maneuver, learning platform allocation, and teacher training. In this paper, edge computing is used to optimize online education, and a task offloading algorithm is designed to minimize the computing delay of terminal tasks. Through preparation, practice, and reflection of this online education, this study aims to comprehensively demonstrate the learning condition of online education in China and present the real adjustment impact based on the problems encountered during the process. Although several schools gradually reopened to students in 3 months, several improvements are warranted in various ways. This study proposes the construction of education infrastructure, the adjustment of teaching organization, and the learning methods of teachers and students, providing a clear guiding significance for the development and enhancement of online education in the future.

The effect of learning condition on memory for and integration of related information

Although we often are tasked with learning pieces of information that are related in some way in educational settings, the learning conditions that promote learning of and connections across related information are still poorly understood. In this thesis, I asked: Which instruction methods promote learning of and connections across (integration of) related information? In the two experiments in this thesis, participants were presented related information in two different formats, and we assessed their memory for related information, in addition to how well they could integrate related information to derive new knowledge. The two presentation formats incorporated the same number of exposures of related information, but the sequence with which information was presented was manipulated: In one presentation format (blocked) participants strongly learn one set of information, before being confronted with a related set of information, whereas participants learn related information in parallel in the other (interleaved). In Experiment 1, we found that blocked presentation enhanced both memory for and integration of related information. However, given potential effects of testing order on our results, we more closely examined memory for related information in Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, we no longer found a difference in overall memory for related information between the two presentation formats. In fact, we found evidence that presence of shared information enhanced learning of related information after interleaved presentation only. Regardless, the results of both experiments demonstrated that manipulating just the sequence with which information is presented, without increasing the number of exposures, can enhance learning, an impactful finding in an era of increased pressures to maximize instructional time.

The effect of learning condition on memory for and integration of related information

Although we often are tasked with learning pieces of information that are related in some way in educational settings, the learning conditions that promote learning of and connections across related information are still poorly understood. In this thesis, I asked: Which instruction methods promote learning of and connections across (integration of) related information? In the two experiments in this thesis, participants were presented related information in two different formats, and we assessed their memory for related information, in addition to how well they could integrate related information to derive new knowledge. The two presentation formats incorporated the same number of exposures of related information, but the sequence with which information was presented was manipulated: In one presentation format (blocked) participants strongly learn one set of information, before being confronted with a related set of information, whereas participants learn related information in parallel in the other (interleaved). In Experiment 1, we found that blocked presentation enhanced both memory for and integration of related information. However, given potential effects of testing order on our results, we more closely examined memory for related information in Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, we no longer found a difference in overall memory for related information between the two presentation formats. In fact, we found evidence that presence of shared information enhanced learning of related information after interleaved presentation only. Regardless, the results of both experiments demonstrated that manipulating just the sequence with which information is presented, without increasing the number of exposures, can enhance learning, an impactful finding in an era of increased pressures to maximize instructional time.

Language and nonlanguage factors in foreign language learning: evidence for the learning condition hypothesis

The question of why native and foreign languages are learned with a large performance gap has prompted language researchers to hypothesize that they are subserved by fundamentally different mechanisms. However, this hypothesis may not have taken into account that these languages can be learned under different conditions (e.g., naturalistic vs. classroom settings). With a large sample of 636 third language (L3) learners who learned Chinese and English as their first (L1) and second (L2) languages, the present study examined the association of learning success across L1–L3. We argue that learning conditions may reveal how these languages are associated in terms of learning success. Because these languages were learned under a continuum of naturalistic to classroom conditions from L1 to L3, this sample afforded us a unique opportunity to evaluate the hypothesis that similar learning conditions between languages could be an important driving force determining language learning success. After controlling for nonlanguage factors such as musical background and motivational factors and using a convergence of analytics including the general linear models, the structural equation models, and machine learning, we found that the closer two languages were on the continuum of learning conditions, the stronger their association of learning success. Specifically, we found a significant association between L1 and L2 and between L2 and L3, but not between L1 and L3. Our results suggest that learning conditions may have important implications for the learning success of L1–L3.

The Relation Between Complexity and Resilient Motor Performance and the Effects of Differential Learning

Complex systems typically demonstrate a mixture of regularity and flexibility in their behavior, which would make them adaptive. At the same time, adapting to perturbations is a core characteristic of resilience. The first aim of the current research was therefore to test the possible relation between complexity and resilient motor performance (i.e., performance while being perturbed). The second aim was to test whether complexity and resilient performance improve through differential learning. To address our aims, we designed two parallel experiments involving a motor task, in which participants moved a stick with their non-dominant hand along a slider. Participants could score points by moving a cursor as fast and accurately as possible between two boxes, positioned on the right- and left side of the screen in front of them. In a first session, we determined the complexity by analyzing the temporal structure of variation in the box-to-box movement intervals with a Detrended Fluctuation Analysis. Then, we introduced perturbations to the task: We altered the tracking speed of the cursor relative to the stick-movements briefly (i.e., 4 s) at intervals of 1 min (Experiment 1), or we induced a prolonged change of the tracking speed each minute (Experiment 2). Subsequently, participants had three sessions of either classical learning or differential learning. Participants in the classical learning condition were trained to perform the ideal movement pattern, whereas those in the differential learning condition had to perform additional and irrelevant movements. Finally, we conducted a posttest that was the same as the first session. In both experiments, results showed moderate positive correlations between complexity and points scored (i.e., box touches) in the perturbation-period of the first session. Across the two experiments, only differential learning led to a higher complexity index (i.e., more prominent patterns of pink noise) from baseline to post-test. Unexpectedly, the classical learning group improved more in their resilient performance than the differential learning group. Together, this research provides empirical support for the relation between complexity and resilience, and between complexity and differential learning in human motor performance, which should be examined further.

Decreased thalamo-cortico connectivity during an implicit sequence motor learning task and 7 days escitalopram intake

Evidence suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) reorganize neural networks via a transient window of neuroplasticity. While previous findings support an effect of SSRIs on intrinsic functional connectivity, little is known regarding the influence of SSRI-administration on connectivity during sequence motor learning. To investigate this, we administered 20 mg escitalopram or placebo for 1-week to 60 healthy female participants undergoing concurrent functional magnetic resonance imaging and sequence motor training in a double-blind randomized controlled design. We assessed task-modulated functional connectivity with a psycho-physiological interaction (PPI) analysis in the thalamus, putamen, cerebellum, dorsal premotor, primary motor, supplementary motor, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices. Comparing an implicit sequence learning condition to a control learning condition, we observed decreased connectivity between the thalamus and bilateral motor regions after 7 days of escitalopram intake. Additionally, we observed a negative correlation between plasma escitalopram levels and PPI connectivity changes, with higher escitalopram levels being associated with greater thalamo-cortico decreases. Our results suggest that escitalopram enhances network-level processing efficiency during sequence motor learning, despite no changes in behaviour. Future studies in more diverse samples, however, with quantitative imaging of neurochemical markers of excitation and inhibition, are necessary to further assess neural responses to escitalopram.