Rat Ultrasonic Vocalizations as Social Reinforcers—Implications for a Multilevel Model of the Cognitive Representation of Action and Rats’ Social World

Rats are social animals. For example, rats exhibit mutual-reward preferences, preferring choice alternatives that yield a reward to themselves as well as to a conspecific, over alternatives that yield a reward only to themselves. We have recently hypothesized that such mutual-reward preferences might be the result of reinforcing properties of ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) emitted by the conspecifics. USVs in rats serve as situation-dependent socio-affective signals with important communicative functions. To test this possibility, here, we trained rats to enter one of two compartments in a T-maze setting. Entering either compartment yielded identical food rewards as well as playback of pre-recorded USVs either in the 50-kHz range, which we expected to be appetitive or therefore a potential positive reinforcer, or in the 22-kHz range predicted to be aversive and therefore a potential negative reinforcer. In three separate experimental conditions, rats chose between compartments yielding either 50-kHz USVs versus a non-ultrasonic control stimulus (condition 1), 22-kHz USVs versus a non-ultrasonic control stimulus (condition 2), or 50-kHz versus 22-kHz USVs (condition 3). Results show that rats exhibit a transient preference for the 50-kHz USV playback over non-ultrasonic control stimuli, as well as an initial avoidance of 22-kHz USV relative to non-ultrasonic control stimuli on trend-level. As rats progressed within session through trials, and across sessions, these preferences diminished, in line with previous findings. These results support our hypothesis that USVs have transiently motivating reinforcing properties, putatively acquired through association processes, but also highlight that these motivating properties are context-dependent and modulatory, and might not act as primary reinforcers when presented in isolation. We conclude this article with a second part on a multilevel cognitive theory of rats’ action and action learning. The “cascade” approach assumes that rats’ cognitive representations of action may be multilevel. A basic physical level of action may be invested with higher levels of action that integrate emotional, motivational, and social significance. Learning in an experiment consists in the cognitive formation of multilevel action representations. Social action and interaction in particular are proposed to be cognitively modeled as multilevel. Our results have implications for understanding the structure of social cognition, and social learning, in animals and humans.

An Analysis of the Use of Secondary Reinforcers by Pre-School Teachers for the Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Classes

Reinforcement is one of the widely used practices in today's educational environments. Teachers often use reinforcement as a form of discipline in the classroom, and these reinforcements allow students to learn new ideas, skills, and rules. Reinforcers can be used effectively in teaching of the social and academic skills as well as in reducing or eliminating problem behaviors. Therefore, this study aims at identifying how pre-school teachers in inclusive classes employ secondary reinforcers for the students with special needs. The study is designed as a descriptive research. The participants of the study are four pre-school teachers working in Ankara who teach students with special needs. In this study, the data were collected through the Teacher and Student Information Form and Learned Reinforcement Checklist which was developed by the author. The findings of the study indicate that the participants mostly use social reinforcers. In other words, they all prefer to use social reinforcers such as praise words and applauding for the students with special needs. The findings of the study indicate that the participants employ limited number of activity reinforcers and all teachers participated in the study employed token reinforcers for the students with special needs.

AN EXPLORATION OF POTENTIAL REWARDS IN ENGLISH FOR YOUNG LEARNER (EYL) CLASSROOM

In the 21st century, many parents try to introduce foreign language since earlier. The introduction is started since very beginning because some experts believed that the students who learn foreign language especially English on their primary schools or pre-schools, it will contribute the successful of them in learning language in the next level Ferrandino and Tirozzi as cited in MacDonell, C. (2007:1). This research is a case study. It aims to find out the use of potential rewards in kindergarten schools. This study will also investigate some challenges and efforts of five EYL teachers in teaching English. Hence this study will also focus on the benefits of potential rewards in motivating the EYL students in learning English. The result showed that social reinforcers is the most used reward and three activities that usually implemented in the class are giving applause, smiles and teacher’s signature. Then, there are two main challenges in teaching English in kindergarten school. The first is the use of technology and the second is classroom management. While the efforts used in teaching EYL are the use of media, strategy and rewards. So, the students will be more fun and enjoyable in learning English. Then, the last is the benefits. The result showed that by implementing the rewards system in the class. It can encourage the students to achieve the target learning. The students are happy to follow the instructions from the teacher and can complete the task well.

Relacionamentos Virtuais: uma Análise Acerca dos Padrões Comportamentais dos “Catfish”

A internet exerce grande influência nas relações sociais, portanto, os relacionamentos afetivos também são modificados, logo, dentre esta categoria surge o relacionamento virtual, possibilitando variadas formas de interação, inclusive a criação de perfis falsos. Para descrever o indivíduo que forja sua identidade ao entrar em um relacionamento, por meio da internet, utiliza-se o termo “catfish”. Com base na Análise do Comportamento se objetivou apresentar uma análise funcional do comportamento do “catfish”, identificar suas características e detectar possíveis funções da classe de respostas, a partir de cinco episódios da série com o mesmo nome. A pesquisa é de caráter bibliográfico e documental, foram utilizados livros, artigos e episódios, disponibilizados pelo canal de televisão a cabo MTV e em sites especializados em séries, para a devida análise. Através da análise funcional foram obtidas informações de antecedentes – respostas – consequências (imediatas e atrasadas), possibilitando a identificação de funções para respostas apresentadas em cada episódio. O resultado da pesquisa aponta que a maioria dos “catfish” apresenta baixo contato com reforçadores sociais (antecedente), o que forneceu uma condição para a criação do perfil falso nas redes sociais (resposta) e obteve como consequência a atenção e suporte social (reforço) indicando, assim, que o comportamento do “catfish” é mantido por reforçamento positivo.Palavras-chaves: Relacionamento Virtual, Catfish, Análise Funcional, Análise do Comportamento.AbstractThe internet exerts a great influence on social relationships, therefore, affective relationships are also modified, thus, within this category emerges the virtual relationship, allowing various forms of interaction, including the creation of fake profiles. To describe the individual who forges their identity when entering into a relationship via the internet, the term “catfish” is used. Based on the Behavior Analysis, it was aimed to present a functional analysis of the “catfish”’s behavior, identify its characteristics and detect possible functions of the class of responses from six episodes of the series with the same name. The research is of bibliographical and documentary character, books, articles and episodes, made available by the cable television channel MTV were used and in sites specialized in series, for the due analysis. Through the functional analysis information about antecedent- responses – consequences were obtained (immediate and delayed), allowing the identification of functions for responses presented in each episode. The result of the research indicates that most catfish have low contact with social reinforcers (antecedent) which provided a condition for creating the false profile in social networks (response) and obtained as a consequence attention and social support (reinforcement), thus indicating that the catfish’s behavior is maintained by positive reinforcement.Keywords: Virtual relationship, Catfish, Functional analysis, Behavior Analysis

PENERAPAN FORWARD CHAINING DALAM MENINGKATKAN KEMAMPUAN MANDI SECARA MANDIRI PADA REMAJA DENGAN MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

Hambatan dalam fungsi adaptif merupakan salah satu karakteristik individu dengan intellectual disability. Hal yang termasuk ke dalam fungsi adaptif, yaitu kemampuan bina diri atau perawatan diri. Individu dengan mild intellectual disability merupakan individu yang mampu didik, yaitu mampu untuk mempelajari keterampilan hidup sehari-hari. Salah satu kemampuan adaptif yang dapat ditingkatkan pada individu dengan mild intellectual disability adalah mandi secara mandiri. Kemampuan mandi secara mandiri merupakan salah satu kemampuan yang perlu dikuasai karena berkaitan dengan kebersihan diri sendiri dan kesehatan kulit. Dengan menggunakan teknik forward chaining, satu orang remaja dengan mild intellectual disability mendapatkan pelatihan untuk meningkatkan kemampuannya dalam mandi secara mandiri, terutama dalam mempertahankan kemampuan yang sudah dikuasai dan melatih kemampuan yang sebelumnya belum ada atau ditunjukkan. Pemberian prompting dan social reinforcers juga digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Prompt yang diberikan meliputi instruksi atau arahan. Intervensi dilakukan selama 9 sesi. Hasil dari penelitian ini adalah telah terbentuk perilaku mandi sebagai bagian dari kemampuan bina diri pada remaja dengan mild intellectual disability. Peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa program modifikasi perilaku dengan menggunakan teknik forward chaining disertai dengan pemberian prompt dan social reinforcers menampilkan efektivitas jangka panjang, di mana perilaku mandi secara mandiri dengan langkah-langkah yang tepat dapat dipertahankan oleh subyek apabila terus dilakukan penguatan dengan berulang dan jangka waktu yang panjang atau sesi lebih banyak.