The pattern of play behaviors in white-headed langurs from 1 to 12 months old in limestone forests, southwest China

Play behavior is a significant trait of immature nonhuman primates (hereafter primates), which may play important roles in sensory, locomotor, socio-cognitive, and developmental processes in primates. It has been suggested that function of play is to practice and improve motor skills related to foraging, avoiding predation, attracting mates, raising offspring, and also is to strength social skills concerning to cementing friendly relationships and defraying aggression among individuals. From September 2009 to August 2010, we investigated play behaviors of 1-12-month-old white-headed langur (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) which is a critically endangered primate endemic to China. During this study, we recorded 4,421 play bouts and 1,302 minutes of play time of 7 infants in total. We found that infants had different play behavior patterns at different ages. Specifically, non-social play behaviors appeared at 1 month of age, social play behaviors at 2 months, and all types of social and non-social play behaviors at 3 months. The frequency and duration of non-social play peaked at 5 months and then decreased, while social play appeared at 2 months and gradually increased with age. Non-social play did not differ between the sexes, whereas social play showed sex specificity, with higher frequency and duration of social play in male infants than in female infants. In addition, male and female white-headed langur infants appeared to prefer the individuals of same sex as social playmates. In conclusion, we first reported the pattern of play behavior of a critically endangered langur aged 1 to 12 months though the sample size is small, our results suggest they may have the adaptation of play behaviors in ages and sexes, which may help them adapt to their habitat and social system.

Mediating Effect of Fathers’ Parenting Behavior on the Relationship Between Young Children’s Temperament and Peer Play Behavior

Objectives: Understanding peer play behaviors in young children is crucial because children's personal characteristics influence their peer play behaviors. In this study, we investigated the relationship between children’s temperament (4 years old), fathers’ parenting behavior (5 years old), and peer play behavior (6 years old) using longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Korean Children (PSKC). In addition, the mediating effect of fathers’ parenting behavior on the relationship between children’s temperament and peer play behavior was investigated.Methods: A total of 1,070 children and their fathers were extracted for analysis from the Korean Children's Panel Study (PSKC) 2012 (Year 5) to 2014 (Year 7). The correlations between the relevant variables and the mediating effects of fathers’ parenting behavior were analyzed using SPSS 25.0 and AMOS 25.0.Results: Correlation analysis showed that children’s emotionality and sociability were associated with fathers’ parenting behavior, whereas their sociality and activity were associated with their play disturbance. Next, there was no mediating effect of fathers’ warmth on the relationship between children’s temperament and children’s peer play interactions. The full mediating effects of the fathers’ control on the relationship between the child’s temperament (emotionality and sociability) and peer play behaviors such as disruption and disconnection were confirmed. Children’s activity had a direct effect on their peer play interaction and disruption.Conclusion: Peer play behavior revealed the importance of fathers’ controlling parenting behaviors and children’s temperament, especially in peer play disruption and disconnection. In particular, we confirmed the influence of father’s controlling parenting behavior on children’s sociability and emotionality temperament.

How Do the Children Play? The Influence of Playground Type on Children’s Play Styles

Using a mixed-method design, the aims of the current study were to develop an in-depth understanding of (1) children’s social play behaviors on school and community playgrounds, (2) the duration with which children play within varying social play categories, and (3) assessing children’s perspectives of playground activities, their peer relationships, and recommendations for new playgrounds. Six participants were observed for five 30-min observations on a school playground and for five 30-min observations on a community playground. Participants were also interviewed about their experiences and preferences on school and community playgrounds. The direct observation results support and extend previous work, indicating that children’s play skill competence varies by setting. Children demonstrated higher levels of associative and cooperative play on the school playground, but higher levels of solitary and parallel play on the community playground. This difference in play styles by playground appears to be a function of available play partners and is explained by the interview data, which found that children are not comfortable playing with children they do not know.

Play Behaviors in Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of the Literature

Play is a key factor for children’s healthy psychological, emotional, social, and cognitive development. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it has been postulated that children’s play was affected, not only regarding the time children spent playing but also in terms of the qualitative characteristics of play. The aim of this review was to investigate how children’s play has changed during the COVID-19 pandemic. A review was conducted in the PubMed, Google Scholar, EMBASE, SCOPUS, ERIC, PsycInfo, and JSTOR databases up to 6 December 2020. Furthermore, references of eligible studies as well as of relevant articles were searched using a snowballing technique. The search retrieved 17 eligible studies, conducted in Europe and North America. In general, outdoor play was reduced during the pandemic; on the other hand, there was an increase in indoor play and in videogames-screen time. COVID-19 was present in children’s pretend play. Children’s play was a key contributor to children’s mood and wellbeing. Furthermore, teachers were especially concerned about how children’s play was affected during the lockdown measures. There is evidence that children’s play habits were affected during the COVID-19 pandemic; further research is required, especially cross-culturally oriented.

Is Play Sexually Dimorphic in the Polygamous Squirrel Monkey?

Play behavior is widespread in juvenile mammals and may be a mechanism for practicing skills needed in adulthood. In mammals characterized by strong adult male competition over females, juvenile males perform more social play than do females, and such play may assist in later mating competition. This study examined whether social play behavior is sexually dimorphic in a polygamous neotropical primate, the squirrel monkey (Saimiri collinsi), through a six-week field study of two groups of wild monkeys in Eastern Amazonia, Brazil. We hypothesized that males would conduct more rough-and-tumble play than females and that any sex-based play differences would be more evident in older juveniles. We video recorded juvenile play bouts and scored: age category (younger or older juvenile) and sex of players (male or female); and rough-and-tumble play behaviors (i.e., bite, grab, and wrestle). Juvenile males initiated more play bouts than did females. Most players were older juvenile males, while older juvenile females were the least represented. Older juvenile play bouts occurred mostly among males, while younger juvenile bouts consisted of a more even sex distribution. While younger juveniles did not significantly affect the number of rough-and-tumble behaviors in bouts, the number of behaviors was significantly affected by the sex of older individuals. These results indicate that social play is sexually dimorphic in juvenile S. collinsi; specifically, males play more than females and sex differences are more pronounced in older cohorts. KEYWORDS: Squirrel Monkeys; Mating System; Sexual Dimorphism; Juvenile Period; Development; Play Behavior; Social Behavior; Ethology

Foundational Movement Skills and Play Behaviors during Recess among Preschool Children: A Compositional Analysis

This study aimed to examine the associations between play behaviors during preschool recess and foundational movement skills (FMS) in typically developing preschool children. One hundred and thirty-three children (55% male; mean age 4.7 ± 0.5 years) from twelve preschools were video-assessed for six locomotor and six object-control FMS using the Champs Motor Skill Protocol. A modified System for Observing Children’s Activity and Relationships during Play assessed play behaviors during preschool recess. Associations between the composition of recess play behaviors with FMS were analyzed using compositional data analysis and linear regression. Results: Relative to time spent in other types of play behaviors, time spent in play without equipment was positively associated with total and locomotor skills, while time spent in locomotion activities was negatively associated with total and locomotor skills. No associations were found between activity level and group size play behavior compositions and FMS. The findings suggest that activity type play behaviors during recess are associated with FMS. While active games without equipment appear beneficial, preschool children may need a richer playground environment, including varied fixed and portable equipment, to augment the play-based development of FMS.

Validation of the Activity Room: An Ecologically Valid Assessment of Young Children’s Risk-Taking

Physical risk-taking is associated with increased risk of unintentional injury, a global health challenge and the leading cause of death for children in the United States. To assess risk and develop prevention programs, valid tools to assess children’s physical risk-taking are needed. No ecologically valid behavioral measures are widely available. This study describes the development and validation of the “Activity Room” to measure children’s physical risk-taking while presenting low risk of actual injury. Participants were 59 children aged 4 to 6 years old (51% female; 51% non-Hispanic White) and their parents. Children completed two tasks to assess physical risk-taking: (a) vignettes (short stories presenting risk situations) and (b) the “Activity Room” (unsupervised engagement for 5 min in a room with apparatus designed to stimulate potential physical risk-taking). Parents responded to a questionnaire concerning children’s active play behaviors. Correlational analyses evaluated convergent validity of the Activity Room risk-taking outcome. The Activity Room proved feasible; all children engaged eagerly and safely. Convergent validity was demonstrated through two strategies. First, risk-taking in the Activity Room correlated with observed play behaviors, such as climbing and falling. Second, risk-taking in the Activity Room correlated with children’s risk-taking responses in the vignettes and with parent-reported child risk-taking. Results indicate the Activity Room task is a valid technique to assess young children’s risk-taking in an ecologically valid real-world behavioral task. Incorporation of the task as an assessment tool may benefit a range of studies investigating children’s physical risk-taking behavior, risky decision-making, and child injury prevention strategies.

Teaching Board Game Play to Young Children With Disabilities

We examined the use of an intervention package consisting of the system of least prompts (SLP), visual schedules, peer models, and contingent reinforcement to teach four children with disabilities to independently play board games and communicate with their typically developing peers. We found the intervention package with individual adaptations was related to increases in independent board game play behaviors. No changes in peer-directed social communication were observed. Our study extends the research on board game play–focused interventions by demonstrating the effectiveness of the intervention package for young children with or at risk for disabilities and their typically developing peers.