The Instructions of Melanesian Cargo Cults for the Asia-Pacific Future

So-called cargo cults are new religious movements best known among the indigenous population of Oceania, especially Melanesia. Their focus of attention is the mystery surrounding the new goods brought by light-skinned strangers in awe-striking ocean-going vessels and (later) in great flying ‘bird-like’ containers. Various socio-religious movements arose in response to these European-style wares (later internationally-marketed commodities), or “the Cargo” (pidgin: Kago), often in agitated collective expectation of an extraordinary arrival of new riches. The Melanesian outbursts have been typically inspired by prophet-type leaders, with their messages reflecting a transition between indigenous traditions and more settled islander Christianities. This paper moves on from describing and explaining southwest Pacific cargo-type movements to the issue of the ethos out of which they arose, and addresses the sociology of hope for Cargo (or modern commodities in plenty) as a global issue, best described as “Cargoism.” Sets of beliefs in the coming bounty and changing power of Cargo have much more than ‘provincial’ or local-indigenous implications. They point to a worldwide plethora of expectations wherein material items define the essential comforts of life and capture the individual, family and collective imaginations about the preferred human future. Exploring some of the ‘universally human’ implications within the logic of cargo-cult thinking in its Pacific context, this paper introduces Cargoism as a transoceanic and intercontinental issue that has enormous environmental and politico-economic ramifications. Presages of environmental stress lie with globalizing cargoist dreams and pressures, including hopes for progress and technological solutions offered by trade and commercial expansions (proffered by powerful nations, including China, for the Asia-Pacific future).

Patterns of population genetic structure and connectivity of squat lobsters associated with vulnerable marine ecosystems

<p>Vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) are susceptible to the impact of intense or long-term anthropogenic activities (e.g., bottom trawling). Networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) can help facilitate the conservation and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystem function provided by VMEs. An understanding of the connectivity amongst populations of deep-sea organisms is crucial for informing the management of VMEs, by assessing the effectiveness of existing MPAs and informing the placement of new MPAs. Genetic evaluation of population structure is one of the most commonly used indirect approaches for interpreting connectivity. In contrast to corals or sponges, which are typically habitat-forming organisms as VME-indicator taxa, squat lobsters are often found in close association with VMEs and can be considered to be VME-associated taxa. Nowadays, population genetic studies of deep-sea fauna mainly focus on VME-indicator taxa, whilst relatively few studies have focussed on VME-associated taxa, such as squat lobsters, whose distribution is not exclusively limited to VMEs. In this study, three deep-sea squat lobster species, Munida isos Ahyong & Poore, 2004, Munida endeavourae Ahyong & Poore, 2004 and Munida gracilis Henderson, 1885, were selected based on their association with VMEs (e.g., cold-water coral reefs and seamounts), wide distributional ranges across the southwest Pacific Ocean, and sample availability. The overall aims of this research are to evaluate patterns of population structure and genetic connectivity of three squat lobster taxa in the southwest Pacific Ocean and consider how the acquired genetic information can contribute to the management and conservation of VMEs in the southwest Pacific Ocean. A general introduction of VMEs, MPAs, connectivity of deep-sea fauna, High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS), study area and study taxa are presented in Chapter 1. To provide background information for this research, a review was conducted of the molecular-based studies of the systematics, taxonomy and phylogenetics of marine squat lobster taxa (Chapter 2). Recent molecular-based studies have dramatically increased our understanding of squat lobster phylogenetics and systematics, and thereby the taxonomy of this diverse and challenging group, which provide a valuable starting point for evaluating hypotheses concerning speciation, biogeography, adaptation and co-evolution (e.g., squat lobsters and corals). Notably, accurate taxonomy is critical for population genetic studies and consequently supports the conservation efforts of VMEs. A range of molecular genetic markers, including the mitochondrial COI region, nuclear microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), were utilised to evaluate the genetic connectivity amongst populations of three VME-associated taxa (Munida isos, M. endeavourae and M. gracilis). In addition to this, universal invertebrate primers were used to yield partial COI fragments of 649 bp (DNA barcoding) for the three Munida species to confirm the taxonomic identity and to exclude the possibility of cryptic species. Due to limited genetic information for the three Munida species, novel microsatellite loci were developed for M. isos based on the HiSeq 2500 sequencing platform and used for cross-species amplification in M. endeavourae and M. gracilis (Chapter 3). Additionally, a Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS) protocol and the Universal Network Enabled Analysis Kit (UNEAK) pipeline were employed to develop novel SNPs for M. isos samples from the southwest Pacific Ocean (Chapter 5). A spatially explicit hierarchical testing framework (Northern-Southern biogeographical provinces, North-Central-South regions, and individual geomorphic features) was employed for the evaluation of connectivity amongst populations of the three deep-sea squat lobster taxa across their distributional range in the southwest Pacific Ocean (Chapter 4). The level of genetic diversity was high as revealed by variation at the COI region, and moderate based on microsatellite markers across the three Munida species. With more than 96% of the variance being attributed to differences within populations in the three Munida species, based on both marker types, no genetic subdivision was detected in M. endeavourae, whilst little genetic differentiation was observed in M. isos and M. gracilis based on microsatellite variation. For M. isos, populations from the Tasmanian slope were potentially genetically different from all other populations and may act as source populations, whereas populations from the Kermadec Ridge may be sink populations. Robust evidence of recent demographic expansions was detected in the three Munida species, based on COI and microsatellite marker types. The estimated time of demographic expansions for the three Munida species was ca. 16.1 kya, 24.4 kya and 21.6 kya for the M. isos, M. endeavourae and M. gracilis, respectively, coinciding with the late Pleistocene. The results are discussed in the context of the distribution of existing MPAs, and contribute new information useful to the management of VMEs within national and international waters in the region. To further investigate patterns of connectivity in deep-sea squat lobster populations and provide valuable information for the design of management strategies to protect VMEs, newly developed SNPs were utilised (Chapter 5). The results showed that the Tasmanian slope and Macquarie Ridge populations were genetically different from all other populations, both within New Zealand’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and the high seas beyond, with little gene flow derived from Tasmanian slope populations to Macquarie Ridge populations. The results are discussed in the context of existing MPAs, and highlight the complexity of the endeavour to maintain population diversity and gene flow across multiple national jurisdictions as well as international waters, all of which employ different spatial protective measures. The findings of this research are summarised and discussed in relation to the usefulness of genetic studies to provide new and valuable information about the genetic diversity and connectivity of VME-associated species, and to highlight what additional genetic research is needed to assist in the management and conservation of VMEs in the southwest Pacific Ocean (Chapter 6).</p>

The South Pacific Convergence Zone as Depicted in Reanalysis and Satellite Products

<p>The South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) is the largest rainfall feature in the Southern Hemisphere, and is a critical component of the climate of Southwest Pacific Island nations. The small size and isolated nature of these islands leaves them vulnerable to short and long term changes in the position of the SPCZ. Its location and strength is strongly modulated by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle and the Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), leading to large inter-annual and decadal variability in rainfall across the Southwest Pacific. Much of the analysis on the SPCZ has been restricted to the modern period, more specifically the “satellite era”, starting in 1979. Here, the representation of the SPCZ in the Twentieth Century Reanalysis (20CR) product, which reconstructs the three-dimensional state of the atmosphere based only on surface observations is discussed. The performance of two versions of the 20CR (versions 2 and 2c) in the satellite era is tested via inter-comparison with other reanalysis and observational satellite products, before using 20CR version 2c (20CRv2c) to perform extended analysis back to the early twentieth century. This study demonstrates that 20CR performs well in the satellite era, and is considered suitable for extended analysis. It is established that extra data added in the SPCZ region between 20CR versions 2 and 2c has improved the representation of the SPCZ during 1908-1958. Well-established relationships between ENSO and the IPO with the SPCZ are shown to be present through the entire 1908-2011 period, although it is suggested that the physical link between the IPO and the SPCZ has changed between the first and second half of the twentieth century. Finally, evidence of a southward trend of the SPCZ over the past century is presented, potentially due to an expansion of the tropics as a result of climate change.</p>

Glacial-interglacial productivity in the Polar Frontal Zone, southwest Pacific Ocean

<p>The Southern Ocean has a central role in regulating global climate change. Research has shown evidence of changes in biological productivity are coincident with increased iron deposition and rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. The current data suggests these processes occur homogenously throughout the Southern Ocean, where research largely focuses on changes in biogenic silica as a proxy for upwelling and enhanced opal production. The role of calcium carbonate productivity, however, is rarely discussed, or is referred to in terms of preservation changes associated with shoaling and deepening of the lysocline. This assumption ignores potentially important effects of carbonate productivity and inter-basin complexities on ocean-atmosphere CO2 exchange. Two gravity cores (TAN1302-96 and TAN1302-97) collected from the southwest Pacific Polar Frontal Zone (PFZ) provide more insight into productivity changes and inter-basin differences across glacial-interglacial timescales. Detailed geochemical analysis, together with δ18O stratigraphy and 14C chronology, were used to reconstruct glacial-interglacial changes in terrigenous input and paleoproductivity in the PFZ. Sedimentological and biological analyses provide additional information to support the geochemical observations. This study highlights two distinct productivity modes (i.e. biogenic silica and calcium carbonate) that vary over glacial-interglacial timescales and with respect to the position of the Polar Front (PF). Key findings include; 1) a systematic series of key biological changes are repeated during glacial Terminations I (TI) and II (TII), the order of which depends on the position relative to the PF; 2) calcium carbonate productivity dominates the early part of the Termination north of the PF, whereas the production of biogenic silica dominates the early Termination south of the PF; 3) following TI and TII, calcium carbonate leads productivity in the early interglacials (i.e. MIS 5e and the Holocene), followed by the production of biogenic silica during the late interglacials, concurrent with declining atmospheric CO2 concentrations.</p>

Geomorphology and Geochemistry of Back Arc Basins in the Havre Trough, Southwest Pacific

<p>The Havre Trough back arc system located behind the Kermadec Arc, in the southwest Pacific, is a classic example of an intra-oceanic back arc system. Subduction driven magmatism is focused at the arc front, and melting in the back arc is accompanied by back arc rifting. This study examines the deep back arc basins of the southern Havre Trough. Compared to the well-studied Kermadec Arc front volcanoes, the back arc basins remain poorly explored, yet are important features in understanding key structural and geochemical dynamics of the subduction system. The back arc is characterised by areas of deeper basins and constructional cross-arc volcanic edifices, which had previously been attributed to ‘rift regime’ and ‘arc regime’, respectively. In this study, recently acquired multibeam data was used to produce digital terrain maps that show individual basins within the Havre Trough that host a range of different morphological features, such as elongated ridges, nearly-flat basin floors, and small volcanic cones. Lavas dredged from the 10 basins were analysed, eight of which sample the rift regime and two sample the arc regime. The back arc basin lavas are basalts to basaltic-andesites and show fractionation of olivine + pyroxene ± plagioclase mineral assemblages. Olivine phenocrysts were tested for chemical equilibrium and predominantly show that crystallisation occurred in equilibrium with host melts. However, petrographic features such as dissolution and zoning within plagioclase show evidence of multistage magmatic evolution. Whole rock trace element geochemistry reveals trace element characteristics typical of volcanic arc lavas, such as enrichments in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and Pb relative to high field strength elements (HFSE). From west to east, the back arc basin lavas show a decrease in NbN/YbN, consistent with trench perpendicular flow and progressive melt extraction towards the volcanic front. There is also a broad correlation between NbN/YbN and distance along the strike of the subduction zone. This may suggest a component of trench parallel flow of the mantle wedge, with increasing depletion northwards, although further evidence is needed to rule out pre-existing mantle heterogeneity. Ba/Th values, which trace the addition of slab-derived aqueous fluids, decrease with distance from the arc front. This indicates that the aqueous fluid component becomes less prominent with increasing distance from the arc front. Conversely, the basin lavas exhibit broadly increasing LaN/SmN values with distance from the arc front. As LaN/SmN can be used to trace the deep subduction component, i.e. sediment melt contribution, greater LaN/SmN suggests increasing contribution of a sediment signature away from the arc front. The parameters that measure recycled component flux are comparable between rift and arc regimes, so it is unlikely that increased volatile fluxing leads to the larger concentrations of magmatic activity displayed in arc regimes. Gill volcano (arc regime) has similar to higher NbN/YbN than lavas from adjacent basins, suggesting increased magmatic activity may in part relate to pockets of more fertile mantle. This study shows that back arcs and associated volcanism can be complicated, further research is integral in determining mechanisms for voluminous magmatic activity spread throughout the back arc.</p>

The South Pacific Convergence Zone as Depicted in Reanalysis and Satellite Products

<p>The South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) is the largest rainfall feature in the Southern Hemisphere, and is a critical component of the climate of Southwest Pacific Island nations. The small size and isolated nature of these islands leaves them vulnerable to short and long term changes in the position of the SPCZ. Its location and strength is strongly modulated by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle and the Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), leading to large inter-annual and decadal variability in rainfall across the Southwest Pacific. Much of the analysis on the SPCZ has been restricted to the modern period, more specifically the “satellite era”, starting in 1979. Here, the representation of the SPCZ in the Twentieth Century Reanalysis (20CR) product, which reconstructs the three-dimensional state of the atmosphere based only on surface observations is discussed. The performance of two versions of the 20CR (versions 2 and 2c) in the satellite era is tested via inter-comparison with other reanalysis and observational satellite products, before using 20CR version 2c (20CRv2c) to perform extended analysis back to the early twentieth century. This study demonstrates that 20CR performs well in the satellite era, and is considered suitable for extended analysis. It is established that extra data added in the SPCZ region between 20CR versions 2 and 2c has improved the representation of the SPCZ during 1908-1958. Well-established relationships between ENSO and the IPO with the SPCZ are shown to be present through the entire 1908-2011 period, although it is suggested that the physical link between the IPO and the SPCZ has changed between the first and second half of the twentieth century. Finally, evidence of a southward trend of the SPCZ over the past century is presented, potentially due to an expansion of the tropics as a result of climate change.</p>

Glacial-interglacial productivity in the Polar Frontal Zone, southwest Pacific Ocean

<p>The Southern Ocean has a central role in regulating global climate change. Research has shown evidence of changes in biological productivity are coincident with increased iron deposition and rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. The current data suggests these processes occur homogenously throughout the Southern Ocean, where research largely focuses on changes in biogenic silica as a proxy for upwelling and enhanced opal production. The role of calcium carbonate productivity, however, is rarely discussed, or is referred to in terms of preservation changes associated with shoaling and deepening of the lysocline. This assumption ignores potentially important effects of carbonate productivity and inter-basin complexities on ocean-atmosphere CO2 exchange. Two gravity cores (TAN1302-96 and TAN1302-97) collected from the southwest Pacific Polar Frontal Zone (PFZ) provide more insight into productivity changes and inter-basin differences across glacial-interglacial timescales. Detailed geochemical analysis, together with δ18O stratigraphy and 14C chronology, were used to reconstruct glacial-interglacial changes in terrigenous input and paleoproductivity in the PFZ. Sedimentological and biological analyses provide additional information to support the geochemical observations. This study highlights two distinct productivity modes (i.e. biogenic silica and calcium carbonate) that vary over glacial-interglacial timescales and with respect to the position of the Polar Front (PF). Key findings include; 1) a systematic series of key biological changes are repeated during glacial Terminations I (TI) and II (TII), the order of which depends on the position relative to the PF; 2) calcium carbonate productivity dominates the early part of the Termination north of the PF, whereas the production of biogenic silica dominates the early Termination south of the PF; 3) following TI and TII, calcium carbonate leads productivity in the early interglacials (i.e. MIS 5e and the Holocene), followed by the production of biogenic silica during the late interglacials, concurrent with declining atmospheric CO2 concentrations.</p>

Geomorphology and Geochemistry of Back Arc Basins in the Havre Trough, Southwest Pacific

<p>The Havre Trough back arc system located behind the Kermadec Arc, in the southwest Pacific, is a classic example of an intra-oceanic back arc system. Subduction driven magmatism is focused at the arc front, and melting in the back arc is accompanied by back arc rifting. This study examines the deep back arc basins of the southern Havre Trough. Compared to the well-studied Kermadec Arc front volcanoes, the back arc basins remain poorly explored, yet are important features in understanding key structural and geochemical dynamics of the subduction system. The back arc is characterised by areas of deeper basins and constructional cross-arc volcanic edifices, which had previously been attributed to ‘rift regime’ and ‘arc regime’, respectively. In this study, recently acquired multibeam data was used to produce digital terrain maps that show individual basins within the Havre Trough that host a range of different morphological features, such as elongated ridges, nearly-flat basin floors, and small volcanic cones. Lavas dredged from the 10 basins were analysed, eight of which sample the rift regime and two sample the arc regime. The back arc basin lavas are basalts to basaltic-andesites and show fractionation of olivine + pyroxene ± plagioclase mineral assemblages. Olivine phenocrysts were tested for chemical equilibrium and predominantly show that crystallisation occurred in equilibrium with host melts. However, petrographic features such as dissolution and zoning within plagioclase show evidence of multistage magmatic evolution. Whole rock trace element geochemistry reveals trace element characteristics typical of volcanic arc lavas, such as enrichments in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and Pb relative to high field strength elements (HFSE). From west to east, the back arc basin lavas show a decrease in NbN/YbN, consistent with trench perpendicular flow and progressive melt extraction towards the volcanic front. There is also a broad correlation between NbN/YbN and distance along the strike of the subduction zone. This may suggest a component of trench parallel flow of the mantle wedge, with increasing depletion northwards, although further evidence is needed to rule out pre-existing mantle heterogeneity. Ba/Th values, which trace the addition of slab-derived aqueous fluids, decrease with distance from the arc front. This indicates that the aqueous fluid component becomes less prominent with increasing distance from the arc front. Conversely, the basin lavas exhibit broadly increasing LaN/SmN values with distance from the arc front. As LaN/SmN can be used to trace the deep subduction component, i.e. sediment melt contribution, greater LaN/SmN suggests increasing contribution of a sediment signature away from the arc front. The parameters that measure recycled component flux are comparable between rift and arc regimes, so it is unlikely that increased volatile fluxing leads to the larger concentrations of magmatic activity displayed in arc regimes. Gill volcano (arc regime) has similar to higher NbN/YbN than lavas from adjacent basins, suggesting increased magmatic activity may in part relate to pockets of more fertile mantle. This study shows that back arcs and associated volcanism can be complicated, further research is integral in determining mechanisms for voluminous magmatic activity spread throughout the back arc.</p>