Unraveling Contradictions: Which Glosses Facilitate Reading Comprehension Among ELLs, and Why?

This critical literature review provides study details for 36 studies examining the effect of glossing for language acquisition among English language learners (ELLs). Useful tables include specificity of participants, gloss types, target vocabulary items and text information about all studies. An analysis of these studies reveals that glossing is an effective means to enhance reading comprehension among ELLs. However, gloss language—whether L1 or English, may depend on learner factors. Other findings include the importance of proximity of gloss to text and the need for glosses that do not require readers to leave the text to access meaning. Considerations such as text genre, text length, targeted items for glossing, number of items to gloss, and gloss presentation are also examined and discussed, including which gloss types may result in trade-offs when glossing is used as a means to promote incidental vocabulary acquisition through independent reading. Several recommendations for further research are offered.

Effects of Using Multimodal Glosses in Video Games to Enhance Incidental Vocabulary Learning and Retention

Given the crucial role of vocabulary knowledge in language development, the literature is replete with studies that explore the effects of various vocabulary learning strategies. This chapter taps into two areas of research on vocabulary learning, multimodal glossing and digital gaming, and reports on an experimental study whose aim was to investigate the effect of providing EFL students (n=162) with three gloss conditions (L1 test + picture, L2 text + picture, and picture-only) when they play a video game on their vocabulary acquisition and retention. The students took two vocabulary tests immediately after playing the game, and again two weeks later. The findings revealed that while all groups benefited from multimodal glossing, the L1 text + picture gloss group significantly performed better than the other two groups in the acquisition and retention of the targeted words. The chapter concludes by discussing the limitations of the current study and suggesting new directions for future research.

Comparing the Effects of Different Post-Listening Output Tasks on Second Language Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition: Revisiting the Involvement Load Hypothesis

Based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis, the present study investigated the differential effects of three post-listening output tasks (gap-filling, translation, and sentence-making) on immediate acquisition and retention of such vocabulary dimensions as productive knowledge of orthography, receptive recall of meaning and form, and productive knowledge of grammatical functions. Ninety second-year English majors were divided into three groups to finish listening plus one of the post-listening tasks. The results showed that the post-listening output tasks had positive effects on immediate acquisition of productive vocabulary knowledge, partially in agreement with the Involvement Load Hypothesis. However, the effects on vocabulary knowledge retention were found to be largely inconsistent with the Involvement Load Hypothesis. The finding thus challenges this hypothesis in that involvement load is not the only determining factor and suggests that the theoretical construct of involvement load should be constructed with more caution.

Fostering incidental vocabulary uptake from audio-visual materials: The role of text comprehension

<p>This research project explores various factors that may influence the rate of incidental foreign/second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition from audio-visual materials, with a special focus on procedures that enhance learners’ comprehension of these input materials. Informed by relevant theories and research findings in the fields of L2 listening comprehension and incidental vocabulary acquisition, I investigate the effects of having learners (a) view a TED Talks video twice rather than once, (b) sum up the content of the video before watching it a second time, (c) watch TED Talks videos on the same subject in order to increase familiarity with that subject, and (d) exchange summaries of TED Talks videos with peers so as to assist each other’s subsequent processing of those videos. As these interventions are all deemed to facilitate L2 listening comprehension, they are also expected to create favourable conditions for incidental vocabulary uptake to occur. The effects on incidental vocabulary acquisition of the above interventions were gauged in a series of classroom experiments with Vietnamese EFL learners. Although vocabulary uptake was generally far from spectacular, all of the tested procedures were found to result in statistically significant vocabulary gains. The insertion of the output tasks (i.e., the summary activities) was particularly useful. First, they helped to enhance the learners’ text comprehension. Second, they created opportunities for the learners to use newly met words and thus consolidate their knowledge of these lexical items. A thread through the experimental data is the strong association between the learners’ vocabulary uptake and their comprehension of the input content. The findings from this research project are consistent with several established notions, models and theories in the fields, including Ausubel’s Advance Organizer (1978), Hulstijn and Laufer’s Involvement Load Hypothesis (2001), Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1985), Nation’s Vocabulary Generation (2013), Swain’s Output Hypothesis (2005), and Wittrock’s Model of Generative Teaching of Comprehension (1991). However, there are also findings that go beyond the core tenets of these, and that can further our understanding of how learners process new lexical items in meaning-focused input and output tasks. Regarding pedagogical implications, this research project confirms that fostering L2 listening comprehension creates favourable conditions for incidental vocabulary acquisition to happen, and that the aforementioned classroom procedures are facilitative in this regard, albeit to different degrees.</p>

Fostering incidental vocabulary uptake from audio-visual materials: The role of text comprehension

<p>This research project explores various factors that may influence the rate of incidental foreign/second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition from audio-visual materials, with a special focus on procedures that enhance learners’ comprehension of these input materials. Informed by relevant theories and research findings in the fields of L2 listening comprehension and incidental vocabulary acquisition, I investigate the effects of having learners (a) view a TED Talks video twice rather than once, (b) sum up the content of the video before watching it a second time, (c) watch TED Talks videos on the same subject in order to increase familiarity with that subject, and (d) exchange summaries of TED Talks videos with peers so as to assist each other’s subsequent processing of those videos. As these interventions are all deemed to facilitate L2 listening comprehension, they are also expected to create favourable conditions for incidental vocabulary uptake to occur. The effects on incidental vocabulary acquisition of the above interventions were gauged in a series of classroom experiments with Vietnamese EFL learners. Although vocabulary uptake was generally far from spectacular, all of the tested procedures were found to result in statistically significant vocabulary gains. The insertion of the output tasks (i.e., the summary activities) was particularly useful. First, they helped to enhance the learners’ text comprehension. Second, they created opportunities for the learners to use newly met words and thus consolidate their knowledge of these lexical items. A thread through the experimental data is the strong association between the learners’ vocabulary uptake and their comprehension of the input content. The findings from this research project are consistent with several established notions, models and theories in the fields, including Ausubel’s Advance Organizer (1978), Hulstijn and Laufer’s Involvement Load Hypothesis (2001), Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1985), Nation’s Vocabulary Generation (2013), Swain’s Output Hypothesis (2005), and Wittrock’s Model of Generative Teaching of Comprehension (1991). However, there are also findings that go beyond the core tenets of these, and that can further our understanding of how learners process new lexical items in meaning-focused input and output tasks. Regarding pedagogical implications, this research project confirms that fostering L2 listening comprehension creates favourable conditions for incidental vocabulary acquisition to happen, and that the aforementioned classroom procedures are facilitative in this regard, albeit to different degrees.</p>

English language learning through viewing television: An investigation of comprehension, incidental vocabulary acquisition, lexical coverage, attitudes, and captions

<p>In the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) setting it may be a challenge to obtain the second language input necessary for language learning. A potential source of input may be episodes of television; however, little previous research has been done indicating whether episodes are a suitable source of aural input for EFL learning. Past research has concentrated on short videos of a type that learners might not choose to learn English from. The experimental design employed in this thesis expands upon earlier methodologies by employing full-length episodes of television intended for an English-speaking audience. The thesis is comprised of five studies investigating aspects of language learning through viewing television. The first study examines comprehension gains from the first to the tenth episode viewed, comprehension across 10 episodes viewed, and the effects of vocabulary knowledge on comprehension. The results showed significant comprehension gains from the first to the final episode viewed. Comprehension scores across the eight intervening episodes were all higher than the initial episode but scores were episode-dependent. The results also showed small to moderate correlations between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension for each of the 10 episodes. The second study investigated the effects of viewing over 7 hours of television on incidental vocabulary learning, and the effects of the frequency and range of occurrence of lower frequency words within the episodes on vocabulary learning. Two tests measuring knowledge of form-meaning connection at differing sensitivities were used to assess vocabulary knowledge. Results showed vocabulary gains of approximately six words on both tests. Frequency of occurrence was found to have a medium-size correlation with vocabulary gains. No significant relationship was found between range of occurrence and acquisition. The third study examined whether increased lexical coverage leads to increased comprehension of television and greater incidental vocabulary learning. Results showed that comprehension improved with increased lexical coverage for six of the 10 episodes. In these episodes, participants with approximately 94% lexical coverage were found to have higher comprehension scores than participants with less lexical coverage. Results showed no significant relationship between incidental vocabulary acquisition and lexical coverage. In the fourth study, two surveys examined language learners‟ attitudes towards learning English through viewing episodes of television. One survey followed each episode and examined learners‟ beliefs about: their enjoyment of the episode, the usefulness of studying English through viewing the episode, their level of learning from the episode, and their comprehension of the episode. For all items, mean responses were significantly higher following the final episode than following the first episode. On the survey that followed viewing all the episodes, participants had generally favorable attitudes towards language learning through viewing television. The fifth study investigated how the presence of captions affected the aspects of language learning examined in Studies 1 to 4. The most salient finding from this study was that the presence of captions improved comprehension for episodes early in the viewing process and for difficult episodes. Taken as a whole, this thesis shows the value of using episodes of television for language learning.</p>

English language learning through viewing television: An investigation of comprehension, incidental vocabulary acquisition, lexical coverage, attitudes, and captions

<p>In the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) setting it may be a challenge to obtain the second language input necessary for language learning. A potential source of input may be episodes of television; however, little previous research has been done indicating whether episodes are a suitable source of aural input for EFL learning. Past research has concentrated on short videos of a type that learners might not choose to learn English from. The experimental design employed in this thesis expands upon earlier methodologies by employing full-length episodes of television intended for an English-speaking audience. The thesis is comprised of five studies investigating aspects of language learning through viewing television. The first study examines comprehension gains from the first to the tenth episode viewed, comprehension across 10 episodes viewed, and the effects of vocabulary knowledge on comprehension. The results showed significant comprehension gains from the first to the final episode viewed. Comprehension scores across the eight intervening episodes were all higher than the initial episode but scores were episode-dependent. The results also showed small to moderate correlations between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension for each of the 10 episodes. The second study investigated the effects of viewing over 7 hours of television on incidental vocabulary learning, and the effects of the frequency and range of occurrence of lower frequency words within the episodes on vocabulary learning. Two tests measuring knowledge of form-meaning connection at differing sensitivities were used to assess vocabulary knowledge. Results showed vocabulary gains of approximately six words on both tests. Frequency of occurrence was found to have a medium-size correlation with vocabulary gains. No significant relationship was found between range of occurrence and acquisition. The third study examined whether increased lexical coverage leads to increased comprehension of television and greater incidental vocabulary learning. Results showed that comprehension improved with increased lexical coverage for six of the 10 episodes. In these episodes, participants with approximately 94% lexical coverage were found to have higher comprehension scores than participants with less lexical coverage. Results showed no significant relationship between incidental vocabulary acquisition and lexical coverage. In the fourth study, two surveys examined language learners‟ attitudes towards learning English through viewing episodes of television. One survey followed each episode and examined learners‟ beliefs about: their enjoyment of the episode, the usefulness of studying English through viewing the episode, their level of learning from the episode, and their comprehension of the episode. For all items, mean responses were significantly higher following the final episode than following the first episode. On the survey that followed viewing all the episodes, participants had generally favorable attitudes towards language learning through viewing television. The fifth study investigated how the presence of captions affected the aspects of language learning examined in Studies 1 to 4. The most salient finding from this study was that the presence of captions improved comprehension for episodes early in the viewing process and for difficult episodes. Taken as a whole, this thesis shows the value of using episodes of television for language learning.</p>

Effect of Word Exposure Frequency on Chinese Advanced EFL Learners’ Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition

The present study explores the effect of word exposure frequency on Chinese advanced EFL learners’ incidental acquisition of three aspects of word knowledge (i.e., word form, word class and word meaning). The participants were 20 Chinese English postgraduates who read two chapters of an original English novel and took four vocabulary tests. The target words were 20 pseudo-words created to replace the words that naturally occurred from one to twenty times in the text. The results show that word exposure frequency has a significant effect on IVA through reading, exerting the strongest effect on word form recognition and the weakest on word meaning recall. The study also finds that seven is the threshold value for significant word gain growth and that local word frequency also influences learners’ IVA.

INVOLVEMENT LOAD HYPOTHESIS PLUS

The present meta-analysis aimed to improve on Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) by incorporating it into a broader framework that predicts incidental vocabulary learning. Studies testing the ILH were systematically collected and 42 studies meeting our inclusion criteria were analyzed. The model-selection approach was used to determine the optimal statistical model (i.e., a set of predictor variables) that best predicts learning gains. Following previous findings, we investigated whether the prediction of the ILH improved by (a) examining the influence of each level of individual ILH components (need, search, and evaluation), (b) adopting optimal operationalization of the ILH components and test format grouping, and (c) including other empirically motivated variables. Results showed that the resulting models explained a greater variance in learning gains. Based on the models, we created incidental vocabulary learning formulas. Using these formulas, one can calculate the effectiveness index of activities to predict their relative effectiveness more accurately on incidental vocabulary learning.