Increased cognitive load during pseudoword processing

Pseudowords (words without semantic meaning) are often used as a control condition in linguistic cognitive experiments, with the expectation that such words, unlike real words, do not activate higher cognitive processes in the brain. However, other theories assume that pseudowords are perceived as new words, leading to an even higher cognitive response. The aim of this study was to investigate the cognitive load of processing a pseudoword by observing event-related potentials in a 3-stimulus oddball paradigm using real target words, real non-target words, and pseudowords as oddball stimuli. The results show a clear task-related P3b triggered by target words, but also a prominent P600 component triggered by pseudowords, indicating difficulty in the classification task due to unknown words. Surprisingly, N400 was decreased for pseudowords compared to target and non-target words at the locations where P3b and P600 were observed, suggesting that task-related effects might inhibit other aspects of cognitive processing. These results could lead to better understanding of the components that may overlap temporally and topographically, and to the more precise control of different cognitive generators involved in event-related potential experiments in pseudowords.

Tłumaczenie symultaniczne mowy noblowskiej w dydaktyce przekładu konferencyjnego

Simultaneous Interpreting of a Nobel Lecture in Conference Interpreter Training Simultaneous interpreting with text is a hybrid mode combining simultaneous with sight translation. As it constitutes an important element of the interpreter’s work, it must then be a component of conference interpreter training. Due to a scarce research in the field so far, the aim of this paper is to discuss an empirical longitudinal study of simultaneous interpreting of a Nobel lecture from Spanish into Polish. The results of the analysis show that during the preparation phase, it is not a selective analysis of such lexical items as proper names, numbers or unknown words, but rather a syntactic analysis, which enables to render compound statements in a specific register, as well as an in-depth cultural analysis, which contributes to acquiring knowledge across different fields necessary in conference interpreting.

The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us

Vocabulary learning has been traditionally considered central to second language learning. It may take place either intentionally, by means of deliberate attempts to commit factual information to memory, or incidentally, as a consequence of other cognitive processes involving comprehension. Video games, which have been extensively employed in educational contexts to understand lexical development in foreign languages, foster both exposure to and the production of authentic and meaning-focused vocabulary. An empirical study was conducted to explore the effect of playing an online multiplayer social deduction game (i.e., a game in which players attempt to uncover each other’s hidden role) on incidental and intentional second language (L2) vocabulary learning. Secondary school pre-intermediate English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students (n = 54) took a vocabulary pre-test that identified eight unknown words likely to appear in the video game Among Us. Then, students were randomly assigned to different groups of players and to different learning conditions—within each group, half of the players were given a list of phrases containing such target words, which they were encouraged to meaningfully use in the game by means of written interaction. In doing so, students learnt some target words intentionally and provided contextualized incidental exposure to other players. They took a vocabulary test after two sessions of practice with the game to explore intentional and incidental L2 vocabulary learning gains. The pre- and post-tests suggested, among other results, that players using new L2 words in the game Among Us would retain more vocabulary than players only encountering them, that vocabulary intentionally input helped other users trigger incidental vocabulary learning, and that repetition had a positive effect on L2 vocabulary learning.

Thresholds, Text Coverage, Vocabulary Size, and Reading Comprehension in Applied Linguistics

<p>The inextricable link between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is incontrovertible. However, questions remain regarding the nature of the interaction. One question which remains unresolved is whether there is an optimum text coverage, or ratio of known to unknown words in a text, such that any deleterious effects of the unknown words on reading comprehension are minimised. A related question is what vocabulary size would a reader need to have in order to achieve the optimum text coverage for a given text or class of texts. This thesis addresses these questions in three ways. First, a replication and expansion of a key study (Hu & Nation, 2000)1 was performed. In that study, 98% text coverage was found to be optimal for adequate reading comprehension of short fiction texts when reading for pleasure. To replicate that study, equivalent measures of reading comprehension were collected from a more homogeneous group of participants at a university in northern Thailand (n = 138), under stricter conditions and random assignment to one of three text coverage conditions, to verify the generalisability of the results. The original study was also expanded by measuring reader characteristics thought to contribute to reading comprehension, such as vocabulary size, l1 and l2 literacy, and reading attitudes, in an effort to improve the explainable reading comprehension variance. In order to more accurately calculate the text coverage a reader experiences for a particular text, both the vocabulary profile of the text and the vocabulary size of the reader must be known as precisely as possible. Therefore, to contribute to the question of vocabulary size, changes such as measuring item completion time and varying the order of item presentation were made to the VST (P. Nation & Beglar, 2007) to improve its sensitivity and accuracy. This may ultimately lead to increased precision when using text coverage to predict reading comprehension. Finally, l2 English vocabulary size norms were established to supplement the diagnostic usefulness of the VST. Data were collected through an online version of the VST created for this thesis from primarily self-selected participants (n 1:31 105) located in countries (n 100) around the world representing several l1 and age groups. Analysis of the data collected for this thesis suggest that text coverage explains much less reading comprehension variance than previously reported while vocabulary size may be a more powerful predictor. An internal replication of Hu and Nation (2000) found errors in the calculation of optimum text coverage and in the reported size of the effect on reading comprehension. A critical review of the theoretical foundations of the text coverage model of reading comprehension found serious flaws in construct operationalisation and research design. Due to these flaws, most research which has purported to measure the effect of text coverage on reading comprehension actually measured the effect of an intervening variable: readers’ vocabulary size. Vocabulary size norms derived from data collected through an online version of the VST appear to be reliable and representative. Varying item presentation order appears to increase test sensitivity. Despite a moderate effect for l1 English users, item completion time does not seem to account for any variance in vocabulary size scores for l2 English learners. Based on the finding that vocabulary size may explain both reading comprehension and text coverage, the putative power of text coverage to predict reading comprehension is challenged. However, an alternative measure which may offer greater power to predict reading comprehension, the VST, has been modified and made available online. This version of the VST may provide greater sensitivity and ease of use than the offline, paper-based version.</p>

Thresholds, Text Coverage, Vocabulary Size, and Reading Comprehension in Applied Linguistics

<p>The inextricable link between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is incontrovertible. However, questions remain regarding the nature of the interaction. One question which remains unresolved is whether there is an optimum text coverage, or ratio of known to unknown words in a text, such that any deleterious effects of the unknown words on reading comprehension are minimised. A related question is what vocabulary size would a reader need to have in order to achieve the optimum text coverage for a given text or class of texts. This thesis addresses these questions in three ways. First, a replication and expansion of a key study (Hu & Nation, 2000)1 was performed. In that study, 98% text coverage was found to be optimal for adequate reading comprehension of short fiction texts when reading for pleasure. To replicate that study, equivalent measures of reading comprehension were collected from a more homogeneous group of participants at a university in northern Thailand (n = 138), under stricter conditions and random assignment to one of three text coverage conditions, to verify the generalisability of the results. The original study was also expanded by measuring reader characteristics thought to contribute to reading comprehension, such as vocabulary size, l1 and l2 literacy, and reading attitudes, in an effort to improve the explainable reading comprehension variance. In order to more accurately calculate the text coverage a reader experiences for a particular text, both the vocabulary profile of the text and the vocabulary size of the reader must be known as precisely as possible. Therefore, to contribute to the question of vocabulary size, changes such as measuring item completion time and varying the order of item presentation were made to the VST (P. Nation & Beglar, 2007) to improve its sensitivity and accuracy. This may ultimately lead to increased precision when using text coverage to predict reading comprehension. Finally, l2 English vocabulary size norms were established to supplement the diagnostic usefulness of the VST. Data were collected through an online version of the VST created for this thesis from primarily self-selected participants (n 1:31 105) located in countries (n 100) around the world representing several l1 and age groups. Analysis of the data collected for this thesis suggest that text coverage explains much less reading comprehension variance than previously reported while vocabulary size may be a more powerful predictor. An internal replication of Hu and Nation (2000) found errors in the calculation of optimum text coverage and in the reported size of the effect on reading comprehension. A critical review of the theoretical foundations of the text coverage model of reading comprehension found serious flaws in construct operationalisation and research design. Due to these flaws, most research which has purported to measure the effect of text coverage on reading comprehension actually measured the effect of an intervening variable: readers’ vocabulary size. Vocabulary size norms derived from data collected through an online version of the VST appear to be reliable and representative. Varying item presentation order appears to increase test sensitivity. Despite a moderate effect for l1 English users, item completion time does not seem to account for any variance in vocabulary size scores for l2 English learners. Based on the finding that vocabulary size may explain both reading comprehension and text coverage, the putative power of text coverage to predict reading comprehension is challenged. However, an alternative measure which may offer greater power to predict reading comprehension, the VST, has been modified and made available online. This version of the VST may provide greater sensitivity and ease of use than the offline, paper-based version.</p>

Diagnostic Tests of English Vocabulary Learning Proficiency: Guessing From Context and Knowledge of Word Parts

<p>This thesis looked at the creation and validation of two tests that measure how efficiently English words are learned. Previous studies have created and validated a number of tests that measure the size (how many words are known) and the depth (how well a word is known) of vocabulary knowledge; however, existing vocabulary tests do not indicate how learners can become proficient in vocabulary learning. This research was one of the first attempts to create such tests. A guessing-from-context test (GCT) and a word part test (WPT) were created, because the skill of guessing from context and word part knowledge are teachable and are the most frequently used strategies for dealing with unknown words. The GCT consisted of the following three sections: identifying the part of speech of an unknown word, finding the contextual clue that helps guess its meaning, and deriving the unknown word’s meaning. Each of these three sections was designed to measure each of the important steps in guessing from context that was identified by previous studies. The test was validated using Rasch analysis through data from 428 Japanese learners of English. The results indicated that the GCT is a highly valid and reliable measure of the skill of guessing from context in terms of eight aspects of construct validity (content, substantial, structural, generalizability, external, consequential, responsiveness, and interpretability). Based on the results, two new equivalent forms were created in order to allow a pre- and post-test design where researchers and teachers can investigate learners’ development of the skill of guessing from context. The WPT measured 118 word parts that were selected based on frequency data in the British National Corpus. It consisted of the following three sections: form (recognition of written word parts), meaning (knowledge of their meanings), and use (knowledge of their syntactic properties). These three sections were designed to measure the important aspects of word part knowledge that were identified by previous studies. The WPT was validated using Rasch analysis through data from 440 Japanese learners of English and 1,348 people with various native languages. The results indicated that the WPT is a highly valid and reliable measure of word part knowledge in terms of the eight aspects of construct validity mentioned above. As with the GCT, two new equivalent forms were created in order to allow a pre- and post-test design. For more practical use of the test, the Word Part Levels Test (WPLT) was created by classifying the 118 word parts into three different levels of difficulty. This may allow teachers to quickly examine whether their students need to work on easy or difficult word parts and which aspects of word part knowledge need to be learned. Taken as a whole, the GCT and the WPT are useful measures both for research and practical purposes.</p>

Diagnostic Tests of English Vocabulary Learning Proficiency: Guessing From Context and Knowledge of Word Parts

<p>This thesis looked at the creation and validation of two tests that measure how efficiently English words are learned. Previous studies have created and validated a number of tests that measure the size (how many words are known) and the depth (how well a word is known) of vocabulary knowledge; however, existing vocabulary tests do not indicate how learners can become proficient in vocabulary learning. This research was one of the first attempts to create such tests. A guessing-from-context test (GCT) and a word part test (WPT) were created, because the skill of guessing from context and word part knowledge are teachable and are the most frequently used strategies for dealing with unknown words. The GCT consisted of the following three sections: identifying the part of speech of an unknown word, finding the contextual clue that helps guess its meaning, and deriving the unknown word’s meaning. Each of these three sections was designed to measure each of the important steps in guessing from context that was identified by previous studies. The test was validated using Rasch analysis through data from 428 Japanese learners of English. The results indicated that the GCT is a highly valid and reliable measure of the skill of guessing from context in terms of eight aspects of construct validity (content, substantial, structural, generalizability, external, consequential, responsiveness, and interpretability). Based on the results, two new equivalent forms were created in order to allow a pre- and post-test design where researchers and teachers can investigate learners’ development of the skill of guessing from context. The WPT measured 118 word parts that were selected based on frequency data in the British National Corpus. It consisted of the following three sections: form (recognition of written word parts), meaning (knowledge of their meanings), and use (knowledge of their syntactic properties). These three sections were designed to measure the important aspects of word part knowledge that were identified by previous studies. The WPT was validated using Rasch analysis through data from 440 Japanese learners of English and 1,348 people with various native languages. The results indicated that the WPT is a highly valid and reliable measure of word part knowledge in terms of the eight aspects of construct validity mentioned above. As with the GCT, two new equivalent forms were created in order to allow a pre- and post-test design. For more practical use of the test, the Word Part Levels Test (WPLT) was created by classifying the 118 word parts into three different levels of difficulty. This may allow teachers to quickly examine whether their students need to work on easy or difficult word parts and which aspects of word part knowledge need to be learned. Taken as a whole, the GCT and the WPT are useful measures both for research and practical purposes.</p>

Investigating the Effects of Learning Tasks on Vocabulary Knowledge

<p>This thesis looks at whether different kinds of vocabulary learning tasks result in different types of word knowledge. In almost every study that has investigated the effects of tasks on vocabulary learning; the only aspect of word knowledge that was tested was meaning and form. Since researchers agree that knowing a word involves much more than knowing its meaning and form, prior research may have measured partial knowledge of only one of several aspects of knowledge. In order to determine the effects of vocabulary learning tasks, several aspects of knowledge should be tested. The experiments in this thesis investigated how vocabulary learning tasks affect both receptive and productive knowledge of five aspects of word knowledge: orthography, association, syntax, meaning and form, and grammatical functions. In the first of six experiments, the effects of incidental learning from reading and explicit learning from word pairs on word knowledge were compared. The results indicated that gains in knowledge tend to increase as the number of repetitions increases; however, partial gains from an informative context may be reduced or eliminated if followed by a less informative context. The results also showed that learning from word pairs contributed to surprisingly greater gains in all of the aspects. In the second experiment, two tasks (learning from glossed sentences, and learning from word pairs) were compared to determine the effects of context and synonymy on vocabulary knowledge. It was found that the subjects gained greater knowledge of unknown words that had high frequency synonyms than for those with less frequent synonyms. The results also indicated that a single context may have little effect on acquisition. In the third, fourth and fifth experiments, the effects of receptive and productive learning tasks on vocabulary knowledge were examined. The results indicated that productive learning from word pairs may be more effective at developing productive knowledge while receptive learning from word pairs may be more effective at increasing receptive knowledge. The sixth experiment investigated the effects of receptive and productive learning from word pairs on communication. It was found that the receptive task may be superior in improving comprehension, and the productive task may be better suited to facilitating writing. Taken as a whole, this thesis indicates that measuring multiple aspects of vocabulary knowledge both receptively and productively may provide a much more accurate assessment of the relative efficacy of vocabulary learning tasks. Moreover, it suggests that different tasks may have a different effect on vocabulary knowledge.</p>

Investigating the Effects of Learning Tasks on Vocabulary Knowledge

<p>This thesis looks at whether different kinds of vocabulary learning tasks result in different types of word knowledge. In almost every study that has investigated the effects of tasks on vocabulary learning; the only aspect of word knowledge that was tested was meaning and form. Since researchers agree that knowing a word involves much more than knowing its meaning and form, prior research may have measured partial knowledge of only one of several aspects of knowledge. In order to determine the effects of vocabulary learning tasks, several aspects of knowledge should be tested. The experiments in this thesis investigated how vocabulary learning tasks affect both receptive and productive knowledge of five aspects of word knowledge: orthography, association, syntax, meaning and form, and grammatical functions. In the first of six experiments, the effects of incidental learning from reading and explicit learning from word pairs on word knowledge were compared. The results indicated that gains in knowledge tend to increase as the number of repetitions increases; however, partial gains from an informative context may be reduced or eliminated if followed by a less informative context. The results also showed that learning from word pairs contributed to surprisingly greater gains in all of the aspects. In the second experiment, two tasks (learning from glossed sentences, and learning from word pairs) were compared to determine the effects of context and synonymy on vocabulary knowledge. It was found that the subjects gained greater knowledge of unknown words that had high frequency synonyms than for those with less frequent synonyms. The results also indicated that a single context may have little effect on acquisition. In the third, fourth and fifth experiments, the effects of receptive and productive learning tasks on vocabulary knowledge were examined. The results indicated that productive learning from word pairs may be more effective at developing productive knowledge while receptive learning from word pairs may be more effective at increasing receptive knowledge. The sixth experiment investigated the effects of receptive and productive learning from word pairs on communication. It was found that the receptive task may be superior in improving comprehension, and the productive task may be better suited to facilitating writing. Taken as a whole, this thesis indicates that measuring multiple aspects of vocabulary knowledge both receptively and productively may provide a much more accurate assessment of the relative efficacy of vocabulary learning tasks. Moreover, it suggests that different tasks may have a different effect on vocabulary knowledge.</p>

Enhancing Vocabulary Memorization and Retention through LMS and MultiEx Game Platforms among Thai Tertiary Students

Although technology has been integrated into vocabulary instruction, to date, few studies have compared whether learning management system (LMS) vocabulary exercises or vocabulary online games facilitate better vocabulary acquisition. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) vocabulary lessons plus LMS exercises and TOEIC vocabulary lessons plus MultiEx games (online games) foster short-term vocabulary memorization and long-term vocabulary retention, as well as which performed better. Participants were 72 first-year students at a university in southern Thailand. They were divided into two experimental groups, one given LMS exercises and the other MultiEx games. A word list was taken from the TOEIC word list and a pre-test was used to determine how many words students knew. The unknown words were used in the design of the vocabulary lessons. Ten lessons were provided for the students. Immediately after each lesson, a post-test was conducted to measure their vocabulary recognition. Two weeks after the final lesson, a delayed post-test was conducted to determine how many of the new words had been retained. The main finding was that both vocabulary memorization and retention were enhanced through the use of LMS exercises and the use of MultiEx games. The results showed a higher mean score for the MultiEx game group in both the immediate post-tests and the delayed post-test. Although the differences between the two groups were not statistically significant, the findings suggest integrating technology enhances vocabulary learning outcomes.