Abstract. Via 11 years of high-frequency measurements, we
calculated the probability space of expected offshore wind-speed ramps,
recasting it compactly in terms of relevant load-driving quantities for
horizontal-axis wind turbines. A statistical ensemble of events in reduced
ramp-parameter space (ramp acceleration, mean speed after ramp, upper-level
shear) was created to capture the variability of ramp parameters and also
allow connection of such to ramp-driven loads. Constrained Mann-model (CMM)
turbulence simulations coupled to an aeroelastic model were made for each
ensemble member, for a single turbine. Ramp acceleration was found to
dominate the maxima of thrust-associated loads, with a ramp-induced increase
of 45 %–50 % for blade-root flap-wise bending moment and tower-base
fore–aft moment, plus ∼ 3 % per 0.1 m/s2 of bulk ramp-acceleration magnitude. The ensemble of ramp events from the CMM was also embedded in large-eddy
simulation (LES) of a wind farm consisting of rows of nine turbines. The LES
uses actuator-line modeling for the turbines and is coupled to the
aeroelastic model. The LES results indicate that the ramps, and the mean
acceleration associated with them, tend to persist through the farm. Depending on the ramp acceleration, ramps crossing rated speed lead to maximum loads,
which are nearly constant for the third row and further downwind. Where
rated power is not achieved, the loads primarily depend on wind speed; as
mean winds weaken within the farm, ramps can again have U < Vrated. This leads to higher loads than pre-ramp conditions, with the
distance where loads begin to increase depending on inflow Umax relative
to Vrated. For the ramps considered here, the effect of turbulence on
loads is found to be small relative to ramp amplitude that causes
Vrated to be exceeded, but for ramps with Uafter < Vrated, the combination of ramp and turbulence can cause load maxima.
The same sensitivity of loads to acceleration is found in both the
CMM-aeroelastic simulations and the coupled LES.