Retracing the Footprints

NASA is engaged in a new program to send astronauts back to the lunar surface. Some elements of the new program, called Artemis, will seem like carbon copies of the 1960s roadmap to the Moon. Bu the effort will take advantage of computers, design tools, and materials that are radically more advanced than they were for the Apollo program.

Interpreting Locked Photographic Data: The Case of Apollo 17 Photo GPN-2000-00113

Photography can be used for pleasure and art but can also be used in many disciplines of science, because it captures the details of the moment and can serve as a proving tool due to the information it preserves. During the period of the Apollo program (1969 to 1972), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) successfully landed humans on the Moon and showed hundreds of photos to the world presenting the travel and landings. This paper uses computer simulations and geometry to examine the authenticity of one such photo, namely Apollo 17 photo GPN-2000-00113. In addition, a novel approach is employed by creating an experimental scene to illustrate details and provide measurements. The crucial factors on which the geometrical analysis relies are locked in the photograph and are: (a) the apparent position of the Earth relative to the illustrated flag and (b) the point to which the shadow of the astronaut taking the photo reaches, in relation to the flagpole. The analysis and experimental data show geometrical and time mismatches, proving that the photo is a composite.

End of a Historic Era

This chapter provides an overview of how the Apollo program came to an end, the end of the space race, and how both affected ILC Industries.

Preserving Our Treasures

When the Apollo program was over, the items that were returned to Earth became treasures to be shared with the American taxpayers who funded this great adventure and with people from around the world. The space suits are the only life-support equipment that was taken to the moon’s surface and brought back to Earth. That we have relatively few items back from lunar missions makes the preservation of equipment and moon rocks all the more important. Fortunately, America has some of the best museums in the world. The Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, located on the Mall in Washington, DC, began as the National Air Museum in 1946. Funding for the present building was approved in 1971 and the museum opened its doors on July 1, 1976.

Prometheus Bound

The naming of Dandelion Crater as a lunar navigation point by the Apollo 15 crew establishes the baseline for assessing Bradbury’s continuing role as a Space Age visionary and talisman. The chapter offers deeper context through a brief summary of his earlier rise to Space Program prominence as described in the previous volume, Ray Bradbury Unbound. As the Apollo program came to an end, Bradbury began work designing the basic ride concept and narrative for what would become Spaceship Earth at Disney World’s EPCOT. Chapter 1 closes with the termination of Apollo, long-term setbacks in Disney’s Spaceship Earth planning efforts, and the effect of these twin disappointments on Bradbury.

The Darkness between the Stars

In chapter 2, Bradbury enters the public debate over the curtailment of the Apollo program, beginning with his Los Angeles Times op-ed column, “Apollo Murdered: The Sun Goes Out.” For the moment, Bradbury placed more hope on unmanned Mars missions such as Mariner 9, and played a prominent role in the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Mariner 9 events and book, Mars and the Mind of Man. Bradbury wrote the forward and the conclusion for this book, citing Arnold Toynbee’s concept of “challenge and response,” the need to face up to cultural challenges or face extinction, as the motivation for colonizing other worlds.

Spirit of pionieers, economy and Solar System exploration

<div> <p><strong>SpaceX’s lesson:</strong> SpaceX presents a new approach to astronautics. Its success is a result of the simple application of a commercial approach. Similar breakthroughs were observed when government funding became unnecessary for new technology.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>SpaceX’s recipes:</strong></p> <p><em>Reusability</em>: Falcon 9 – a reusable rocket.</p> <p><em>Simplicity</em>: Contrary to most of other rockets, Falcon 9 uses one type of engine only – Merlin 1 (in different versions).</p> <p><em>Steady improvements</em>: Initial versions of Merlin had rather moderate parameters. Presently, the engine represents one of the best achievement in technology of RP-1/LOX engines (high specific impulse, high ratio thrust/weight).</p> <p>Precooling of fuel allows more fuel in the same volume.</p> <p> </p> <p>“Mass” production: A few hundreds of Merlin engines are produced per year. It could be not impressive but it is more than many other rocket engines.</p> <p><strong> </strong></p> <p><strong>Special taxes?</strong> Given the high public support for space research, probably politicians may be convinced to introduce a special "space tax"? Currently, the average European spends the equivalent of a can of beer monthly on space research!</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>One-copy?</strong> The cost of the rocket is usually less than 10% of the total cost of the interplanetary mission. Most of the money is spent for development of unique devices, produced in one copy.</p> <p>The second copy of Curiosity Rover evidently would be much cheaper than the R&D + first copy’s production cost (about US$ 2.5 billion). Probably no more than US$ 1 billion. At least six Curiosity class rovers could be useful for Mars research.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Better cooperation:</strong> Better cooperation between space agencies can be beneficial. Instead of independent attempts to develop technology already developed by others, decisions makers should consider buying ready products, licences, exchanging of technology, etc.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>A</strong><strong>chievements from previous decades:</strong> Just as in our wardrobe there are old attractive outfits, so in NASA's wardrobe there are past achievements. NERVA nuclear engine (developed 50 years ago) has specific impulse twice as high as the best chemical engines! Fortunately, US Congress recently has approved funds for the development of nuclear engines.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>The spirit of pioneers: </strong>During the Apollo program, there was enthusiasm and a creative spirit typical of pioneering times. Presently, outstanding people still inspire others by pointing out that the conquest of space does not have to be just the domain of large agencies.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Conclusions</strong><strong>:</strong> The current attitude towards space exploration is often the result of irrational political and nationalistic pressure. SpaceX's success still seems to be ignored by many decision makers. A commercial approach and common sense seem to be the best remedies for many of the problems. Outstanding scientists, engineers and technology entrepreneurs can inspire others and restore the spirit of pioneering times known from the Apollo program.</p> </div><p> </p>