Where Are the Poor Located? A Spatial Heterogeneity Analysis of Monetary Poverty in Peru

Measuring poverty is a first step to the design of effective public policies, however, it is also essential to know where the poor are located. The main objective of this research is to evaluate the spatial heterogeneity of the factors that influence monetary poverty for each district in Peru. We apply a Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) approach, which allows us to capture the non-stationarity of the hidden data and to provide coefficients for each district, unlike the OLS model. This research mainly uses the Poverty Map and the Population and Household Census of Peru, both from 2007 and 2017. The overriding findings of our results indicate that female headship, secondary education, electricity, and sanitation services are directly associated with poverty reduction at the local level. For 2007, significant effects are mainly concentrated in the districts of Pasco, Lima and Cajamarca regions. For 2017, the results show a shift towards districts of Junín, Huancavelica, and Cajamarca regions. Likewise, it is highlighted that the highest mean negative effect on poverty is generated by Secondary Education in the GWR estimates; while malnutrition represents the highest mean positive effect on poverty for the level and intercensal models. Finally, the empirical evidence found in this research can help establish better policy designs at the district level.

RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN THE EFFECT OF MARRIAGEABLE MALES ON FEMALE FAMILY HEADSHIP

Female family headship has strong implications for endemic poverty in the United States. Consequently, it is imperative to explore the chief factors that contribute to this problem. Departing from prior literature that places significant weight on welfare-incentive effects, our study highlights the role of male marriageability in explaining the prevalence of never-married female family headship for blacks and whites. Specifically, we examine racial differences in the effect of male marriageability on never-married female headship from 1980 to 2010. By exploiting data from IPUMS-USA (N = 4,958,722) and exogenous variation from state-level sentencing reforms, the study finds that the decline in the relative supply of marriageable males significantly increases the incidence of never-married female family headship for blacks but not for whites.

Parental Effects on Primary School Enrolment under Different Types of Household Headship: Evidence from Pakistan

Previous studies in Pakistan have established the number of pupil, parents, household, and community characteristics as determinants of primary school enrolment. However, treatment of the role of the household power structure in these studies is limited to the inclusion of a single dummy variable for female headship. Present study estimates separate probit regressions for different types of headships, hence allowing for an analysis of the power structure of the household and its impact on other explanatory variables. In addition to confirming the findings of previous studies, this study concludes that mother‘s headship results in greater positive influence of her own education and the economic status of the household on child‘s primary school enrolment. Father‘s headship in this regard has only limited influence. JEL Classification: C25, J16, I21 Keywords: Probit Models, School Enrolment, Gender Issues

Households economically headed by women in times of expansion and crisis (1999-2012): the case of Latin American migrants in Spain

The arrival of flows of Latin-American females in Spain has been closely linked to the demand for domestic workers and carers. During the last period of economic expansion, a subsequent masculinization of these Latin American flows was seen, explaining the trend toward greater gender and occupational balance among these families. An economic recession followed, however, and unemployment impacted men more than it did women, as reflected in the rise in the number of women who became the sole breadwinners in their households. Using the Economically Active Population Survey, we explore the nature of these household structures, the changes in relation to the economic context, and the socio-demographic and labour market characteristics. Female-headed households are defined as those nuclear households where women are the only economic providers. The first of two hypotheses was a greater incidence of female-headed households among Latin American migrants than among households headed by exogamous and Spanish couples, irrespective of other socio-demographic characteristics. The second hypothesis predicted a greater incidence of female-headed households during the recent years of economic crisis. Furthermore, we expected this increase to have occurred in all households but to have been particularly high among Latin-Americans. The results confirm the prevalence of Latin American women as female heads of households and the adjustment within families in line with the changing Spanish socioeconomic and migratory context between 1999 to 2012.Key words: Economic female headship, international migration, economic crisis, Latin Americans, gender, SpainResumen: La llegada de mujeres latinoamericanas a España ha estado estrechamente vinculado a la demanda de cuidadoras y trabajadoras domésticas en el mercado laboral. La posterior masculinización de los flujos de inmigración latinoamericanos durante el periodo de expansión económica explica la evolución hacia un mayor equilibrio de género y ocupacional entre estas familias. Sin embargo, con la llegada de la crisis económica, el desempleo afectó a los hombres más que a las mujeres y ello se ve reflejado en el creciente número de mujeres que se convirtieron en únicas proveedoras económicas de sus hogares. A través de la Encuesta de Población Activa exploramos cómo es la estructura de esos hogares, sus cambios a raíz del cambio de contexto económico y sus características sociodemográficas y laborales. Definimos los hogares encabezados por mujeres como aquellos hogares con núcleo en los que las mujeres son las únicas proveedoras económicas. Nuestra primera hipótesis se sustenta en la mayor incidencia de los hogares encabezados por mujeres entre los migrantes Latinoamericanos respecto a los españoles o a aquellos en los que convive una pareja mixta con mujer latinoamericana, e independientemente de otras características sociodemográficas. La segunda hipótesis predice una mayor incidencia de los hogares con jefatura femenina durante el periodo más reciente marcado por la crisis económica. Ese incremento se prevé para todos los hogares, pero se presume mayor entre los latinoamericanos. Los resultados confirman la prevalencia de las mujeres latinoamericanas como jefas de hogar y el ajuste de las familias al cambio de coyuntura socioeconómica y migratoria entre 1999 y 2012.Palabras clave: Jefatura femenina, migración internacional, crisis económica, Latinoamericanos, género, España