What Caused What? A Quantitative Account of Actual Causation Using Dynamical Causal Networks

Actual causation is concerned with the question: “What caused what?” Consider a transition between two states within a system of interacting elements, such as an artificial neural network, or a biological brain circuit. Which combination of synapses caused the neuron to fire? Which image features caused the classifier to misinterpret the picture? Even detailed knowledge of the system’s causal network, its elements, their states, connectivity, and dynamics does not automatically provide a straightforward answer to the “what caused what?” question. Counterfactual accounts of actual causation, based on graphical models paired with system interventions, have demonstrated initial success in addressing specific problem cases, in line with intuitive causal judgments. Here, we start from a set of basic requirements for causation (realization, composition, information, integration, and exclusion) and develop a rigorous, quantitative account of actual causation, that is generally applicable to discrete dynamical systems. We present a formal framework to evaluate these causal requirements based on system interventions and partitions, which considers all counterfactuals of a state transition. This framework is used to provide a complete causal account of the transition by identifying and quantifying the strength of all actual causes and effects linking the two consecutive system states. Finally, we examine several exemplary cases and paradoxes of causation and show that they can be illuminated by the proposed framework for quantifying actual causation.

Student Competence

Student competence includes process of the organization, transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills of activity. Educational processes (or otherwise, training process) are connected with development of training in time and space and mean consecutive system of actions. Traditionally, research and study process of training is connected with transfer of knowledge by the teacher to the pupil (or to the trainee). The course of training, since ancient times, began to apply various supportive applications promoting acceleration, strengthening of understanding. In modern times, the process of training became impossible without use of computer equipment. It led to emergence of a new paradigm of educational process – electronic education, which is realized in the form of distance education. This chapter 7 students', from National Polytechnic University of Armenia, Faculty of Engineering Cybernetic, =scientific competence in study period from 1967-1972.

Competence-Based Approach to Training in the Virtual Educational Environment

Training includes process of the organization, transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills of activity (Big Soviet Encyclopedia 1970). Educational process (or otherwise, training process) are connected with development of training in time and space and mean consecutive system of actions, it realizing. Traditionally process of training is connected with transfer of knowledge by the teacher to the pupil (or to the trainee). In the course of training since ancient times began to apply various supportive applications promoting acceleration, strengthening of understanding. In modern time process of training became already impossible without use of the computer equipment, and at the first stages involved as auxiliary. It led to emergence of a new paradigm of educational process – electronic education (e-learning) which is realized in the form of remote education. The educational process realized on the basis of the electronic training systems represents purposeful and controlled hard independent work of the trainee who can study in time, convenient for it, having only access to funds of training and to methodical materials. Possibility of contact with the teacher in such systems is, as a rule, conducted by means of e-mails. In this sense, of course, efficiency of a traditional type of training with the teacher in the form of lecture, practical and laboratory researches is more significant. With the reasons of crisis of the higher education of the last time it is covered in discrepancy between opportunities of traditional methods of training and that volume of the actual knowledge which modern society demands from the trained. Therefore the Government of the Russian Federation sees solutions of tasks in development of educational process within an intensification, optimization of educational process and development of electronic education (Development of education 2013). The modern level of development of telecommunication means allows removed trainees to provide access to educational resources of educational institution (remote education). However, at realization of this approach sharply there is a problem of control of the actual knowledge acquired by the trainee. In article it is offered to consider one of forms of a paradigm of electronic education connected with creation of the virtual educational space (VES). Within VOP it is offered to resolve issues of training and control of knowledge at the new level.

Kwestia ochrony życia ludzkiego - czyli konieczność uznania miłości do człowieka za podstawę szacunku do naturalnego środowiska

The point of departure for the reflections in this article was the premise that the ecological crisis is the result not only of the degradation of nature, but also comes from the destruction of that environment, which is the spirituality of modern man. the point is that the more and more intensive use of the biosphere causes many unfavorable chemical and biological changes in the natural environment, which not only have their source in the way of thought and acting of man, but also have their effects on these. Because of this, the author comes to the conclusions that among the fundamental tasks that are before the world of today, one must also include the equiping of man with an ecological knowledge (that is: with a determined set of information connected in a causal-consecutive system on the subject of the functioning of the natural environment and the dependences between it and civilization), but above all: with a system of values and their normative equivalents. Only in such a manner can people be instilled with an adequate attitude, understood as a developed feeling of a link with the world of nature and its parts. We speak here of the readiness for its defense, manifested in concrete actions. Thus , an essential role of such a scientific discipline as environmental ethics shall be giving people the proper catalog of values and norms, which could properly form their motivations, attitudes and behavior as regards the natural environment, which at the end we call the relation of man to himself.

PROBABILITY MODELS FOR SEQUENTIAL-STAGE SYSTEM RELIABILITY GROWTH VIA FAILURE MODE REMOVAL

This paper provides guidance for the planners of a test of any system that operates in sequential stages: only if the first stage functions properly (e.g., a vehicle's starter motor rotates adequately) can the second stage be activated (ignition system performs) and hence tested, followed by a third stage (engine starts and propels vehicle), with further stages such as wheels, and steering, and finally brakes eventually brought to test. Each sequential stage may fail to operate because its design, manufacture, or usage has faults or defects that may give rise to failure. Testing of all stages in the entire system in appropriate environments allows failures at the various stages to reveal defects, which are targets for removal. Early stages' fault activations thus postpone exposure of later stages to test. It is clear that only by allowing the entire system to be tested end-to-end, through all stages, and to observe several total system successes can one be assured that the integrated system is relatively free of defects and is likely to perform well if fielded. The methodology of the paper permits a test planner to hypothesize the numbers of (design) faults present in each stage, and the stagewise probability of a fault activation, leading to a system failure at that stage, given survival to that stage. If the test item fails at some stage, then rectification ("fix") of the design occurs, and the fault is (likely) removed. Failure at that stage is hence less likely on future tests, allowing later stages to be activated, tested, and fixed. So reliability grows. To allow many Test and Fix (TAF) cycles is obviously impractical. A stopping criterion proposed by E. A. Seglie that suggests test stopping as soon as an uninterrupted run/sequence of r (e.g., 5) consecutive system successes has been achieved is studied quantitatively here. It is shown how to calculate the probability of eventual field success if the design is frozen and the system fielded after such a sequential stopping criterion is achieved. The mean test length is also calculated. Many other calculations are possible, based on formulas presented.