Intraparenchymal hemorrhage after serial ventricular reservoir taps in neonates with hydrocephalus and association with neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age

OBJECTIVE Decompressing the ventricles with a temporary device is often the initial neurosurgical intervention for preterm infants with hydrocephalus. The authors observed a subgroup of infants who developed intraparenchymal hemorrhage (IPH) after serial ventricular reservoir taps and sought to describe the characteristics of IPH and its association with neurodevelopmental outcome. METHODS In this multicenter, case-control study, for each neonate with periventricular and/or subcortical IPH, a gestational age-matched control with reservoir who did not develop IPH was selected. Digital cranial ultrasound (cUS) scans and term-equivalent age (TEA)–MRI (TEA-MRI) studies were assessed. Ventricular measurements were recorded prior to and 3 days and 7 days after reservoir insertion. Changes in ventricular volumes were calculated. Neurodevelopmental outcome was assessed at 2 years corrected age using standardized tests. RESULTS Eighteen infants with IPH (mean gestational age 30.0 ± 4.3 weeks) and 18 matched controls were included. Reduction of the ventricular volumes relative to occipitofrontal head circumference after 7 days of reservoir taps was greater in infants with IPH (mean difference −0.19 [95% CI −0.37 to −0.004], p = 0.04). Cognitive and motor Z-scores were similar in infants with and those without IPH (mean difference 0.42 [95% CI −0.17 to 1.01] and 0.58 [95% CI −0.03 to 1.2]; p = 0.2 and 0.06, respectively). Multifocal IPH was negatively associated with cognitive score (coefficient −0.51 [95% CI −0.88 to −0.14], p = 0.009) and ventriculoperitoneal shunt with motor score (coefficient −0.50 [95% CI −1.6 to −0.14], p = 0.02) after adjusting for age at the time of assessment. CONCLUSIONS This study reports for the first time that IPH can occur after a rapid reduction of the ventricular volume during the 1st week after the initiation of serial reservoir taps in neonates with hydrocephalus. Further studies on the use of cUS to guide the amount of cerebrospinal fluid removal are warranted.

Ventricular reservoir versus ventriculosubgaleal shunt for posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in preterm infants: infection risks and ventriculoperitoneal shunt rate

Object The most common neurosurgical condition observed in preterm infants is intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), which often results in posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus (PHH). These conditions portend an unfavorable prognosis; therefore, the potential for poor neurodevelopmental outcomes necessitates a better understanding of the comparative effectiveness of 2 temporary devices commonly used before the permanent insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt: the ventricular reservoir and the ventriculosubgaleal shunt (VSGS). Methods The authors analyzed retrospectively collected information for 90 patients with IVH and PHH who were treated with insertion of a ventricular reservoir (n = 44) or VSGS (n = 46) at their institution over a 14-year period. Results The mean gestational age and weight at device insertion were lower for VSGS patients (30.1 ± 1.9 weeks, 1.12 ± 0.31 kg) than for reservoir patients (31.8 ± 2.9 weeks, 1.33 ± 0.37 kg; p = 0.002 and p = 0.004, respectively). Ventricular reservoir insertion was predictive of more CSF taps prior to VP shunt placement compared with VSGS placement (10 ± 8.7 taps vs 1.6 ± 1.7 taps, p < 0.001). VSGS patients experienced a longer time interval prior to VP shunt placement than reservoir patients (80.8 ± 67.5 days vs 48.8 ± 26.4 days, p = 0.012), which corresponded to VSGS patients gaining more weight by the time of shunt placement than reservoir patients (3.31 ± 2.0 kg vs 2.42 ± 0.63 kg, p = 0.016). Reservoir patients demonstrated a trend toward more positive CSF cultures compared with VSGS patients (n = 9 [20.5%] vs n = 5 [10.9%], p = 0.21). There were no significant differences in the rates of overt device infection requiring removal (reservoir, 6.8%; VSGS, 6.5%), VP shunt insertion (reservoir, 77.3%; VSGS, 76.1%), or early VP shunt infection (reservoir, 11.4%; VSGS, 13.0%) between the 2 cohorts. Conclusions Although the rates of VP shunt requirement and device infection were similar between patients treated with the reservoir versus the VSGS, VSGS patients were significantly older and had achieved greater weights at the time of VP shunt insertion. The authors' results suggest that the VSGS requires less labor-intensive management by ventricular tapping; the VSGS patients also attained higher weights and more optimal surgical candidacy at the time of VP shunt insertion. The potential differences in long-term developmental and neurological outcomes between VSGS and reservoir placement warrant further study.

Center effect and other factors influencing temporization and shunting of cerebrospinal fluid in preterm infants with intraventricular hemorrhage

Object There is little consensus regarding the indications for surgical CSF diversion (either with implanted temporizing devices [reservoir or subgaleal shunt] or shunt alone) in preterm infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. The authors determined clinical and neuroimaging factors associated with the use of surgical CSF diversion among neonates with intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), and describe variations in practice patterns across 4 large pediatric centers. Methods The use of implanted temporizing devices and conversion to permanent shunts was examined in a consecutive sample of 110 neonates surgically treated for IVH related to prematurity from the 4 clinical centers of the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN). Clinical, neuroimaging, and so-called processes of care factors were analyzed. Results Seventy-three (66%) of the patients underwent temporization procedures, including 50 ventricular reservoir and 23 subgaleal shunt placements. Center (p < 0.001), increasing ventricular size (p = 0.04), and bradycardia (p = 0.07) were associated with the use of an implanted temporizing device, whereas apnea, occipitofrontal circumference (OFC), and fontanel assessments were not. Implanted temporizing devices were converted to permanent shunts in 65 (89%) of the 73 neonates. Only a full fontanel (p < 0.001) and increased ventricular size (p = 0.002) were associated with conversion of the temporizing devices to permanent shunts, whereas center, OFCs, and clot characteristics were not. Conclusions Considerable center variability exists in neurosurgical approaches to temporization of IVH in prematurity within the HCRN; however, variation between centers is not seen with permanent shunting. Increasing ventricular size—rather than classic clinical findings such as increasing OFCs—represents the threshold for either temporization or shunting of CSF.

Ventricular Reservoir Punctures Performed by Nurses: An Improvement in Quality of Care

Management strategies in the treatment of infants with posthemorrhagic ventricular dilation include the placement of a ventricular reservoir. Traditionally, ventricular punctures of these reservoirs have been performed only by physicians. In the pilot project described in this article, we taught nursing staff to perform punctures of a cerebral ventricular reservoir in neonates with hydrocephalus to give nurses more control in their daily care of these infants.All consecutive punctures performed between August 2006 and March 2007 (n = 302) were studied. The chart was reviewed for the infant’s state during the puncture, the caregiver who performed the puncture, and the timeliness of the puncture with respect to schedule and to infant state. During the day shift, there was no significant difference in timeliness, whether the puncture was performed by a physician, a nurse, a physician assistant (PA), or a nurse under the supervision of a physician. On the night shift, punctures were performed on schedule significantly more often when they were carried out by nurses (p>.001). This pilot project demonstrated that nurses can learn to perform cerebrospinal fluid removal from a ventricular reservoir. Because it increased the timeliness with which punctures were performed and gave nurses more control in planning rest periods for these infants, this policy change was judged a success.

A multicenter retrospective comparison of conversion from temporary to permanent cerebrospinal fluid diversion in very low birth weight infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus

Object The purpose of this study was to define the incidence of permanent shunt placement and infection in patients who have undergone the 2 most commonly performed temporizing procedures for posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus (PHH) of prematurity: ventriculosubgaleal (VSG) shunt placement and ventricular reservoir placement for intermittent tapping. Methods The 4 centers of the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network participated in a retrospective chart review of infants with PHH who underwent treatment at each institution between 2001 and 2006. Patients were included if they had received a diagnosis of Grade 3 or 4 intraventricular hemorrhage, weighed < 1500 g at birth, and had received surgical intervention. The authors determined the incidence of conversion from a temporizing device to a permanent shunt, the incidence of CSF infection during temporization, and the 6-month CSF infection rate after permanent shunt placement. Results Thirty-one (86%) of 36 patients who received VSG shunts and 61 (69%) of 88 patients who received ventricular reservoirs received permanent CSF diversion with a shunt (p = 0.05). Five patients (14%) in the VSG shunt group had CSF infections during temporization, compared with 11 patients (13%) in the ventricular reservoir group (p = 0.83). The 6-month incidence of permanent shunt infection in the VSG shunt group was 16% (5 of 31), compared with 12% (7 of 61) in the reservoir placement group (p = 0.65). For the first 6 months after permanent shunt placement, infants with no preceding temporizing procedure had an infection rate of 5% (1 of 20 infants) and those who had undergone a temporizing procedure had an infection rate of 13% (12 of 92; p = 0.45). Conclusions The use of intermittent tapping of ventricular reservoirs in this population appears to lead to a lower incidence of permanent shunt placement than the use of VSG shunts. The incidence of infection during temporization and for the initial 6 months after conversion appears comparable for both groups. The apparent difference identified in this pilot study requires confirmation in a more rigorous study.

Use of a simple intraoperative hydrostatic pressure test to assess the relationship between mobility of the ventricular stoma and success of third ventriculostomy

Object. Neuroendoscopists often note pulsatility or flabbiness of the floor of the third ventricle during endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) and believe that either is a good indication of the procedure's success. Note, however, that this belief has never been objectively measured or proven in a prospective study. The authors report on a simple test—the hydrostatic test—to assess the mobility of the floor of the third ventricle and confirm adequate ventricular flow. They also analyzed the relationship between a mobile floor (a positive hydrostatic test) and prospective success of ETV. Methods. During a period of 3 years between July 2001 and July 2004, 30 ETVs for obstructive hydrocephalus were performed in 22 male and eight female patients. Once the stoma had been created, the irrigating Ringer lactate solution was set at a 30-cm height from the external auditory meatus, and the irrigation valve was opened while the other ports on the endoscope were closed. The ventricular floor ballooned downward and stabilized. The irrigation valve was then closed and ports of the endoscope were opened. The magnitude of the upward displacement of the floor was then assessed. Funneling of the stoma was deemed to be a good indicator of floor mobility, adequate flow, and a positive hydrostatic test. All endoscopic procedures were recorded using digital video and recordings were subsequently assessed separately by two blinded experienced neuroendoscopists. Patients underwent prospective clinical follow up during a mean period of 11.2 months (range 1 month–3 years), computerized tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging studies of the brain, and measurements of cerebrospinal fluid pressure through a ventricular reservoir when present. Failure of ETV was defined as the subsequent need for shunt implantation. The overall success rate of the ETV was 70% and varied from 86.9% in patients with a mobile stoma and a positive hydrostatic test to only 14.2% in patients with a poorly mobile floor and a negative test (p < 0.05). The positive predictive value of the hydrostatic test was 86.9%, negative predictive value 85.7%, sensitivity 95.2%, and specificity 66.6%. Conclusions. The authors concluded that the hydrostatic test is an easy, brief test. A positive test result confirms a mobile ventricular floor and adequate flow through the created ventriculostomy. Mobility of the stoma is an important predictor of ETV success provided that there is no obstruction at the level of the arachnoid granulations or venous outflow. A thin, redundant, mobile third ventricle floor indicates a longstanding pressure differential between the third ventricle and the basal cisterns, which is a crucial factor for ETV success. A positive hydrostatic test may avert the need to insert a ventricular reservoir, thus avoiding associated risks of infection.