New dalmanitid trilobite taxa from the Lower Devonian of Argentina: comments on spinosity in endemic taxa from southern high paleolatitudes

Three new Lower Devonian dalmanitid trilobite taxa are recognized from the Talacasto Formation in the Precordillera Basin, Argentina, which includes two monospecific genera (Ivanites leonorae n. gen., n. sp. and Aguaditaspis mediaspina n. gen., n. sp.), and one additional new genus and species left in open nomenclature. These taxa combine characters of the subfamilies Dalmanitinae Vogdes, 1890 and Synphoriinae Delo, 1935, challenging their taxonomic distinction. Forty percent of the dalmanitids from high paleolatitudinal basins from southwestern Gondwana (Malvinokaffric) exhibit non-homologous dorsal spinosity. Aguaditaspis mediaspina n. gen., n. sp. shares similar spines with Trypaulites calypso (Hall, 1861). The unnamed new genus resembles the spinosity of endemic Malvinokaffric dalmanitids, like Dalmanitoides Delo, 1935 and Fenestraspis Braniša & Vaněk, 1973. Considered defensive, the recorded spinosity along with putative sublethal-attack marks, suggest higher predation pressure than previously thought at high paleolatitudes. This evidence is in accordance with some hypothesis on rising predation pressure in the mid-Paleozoic marine ecosystems.

Relaxed risk of predation drives parallel evolution of stickleback behaviour

The occurrence of similar phenotypes in multiple independent populations (viz. parallel evolution) is a testimony of evolution by natural selection. Parallel evolution implies that populations share a common phenotypic response to a common selection pressure associated with habitat similarity. Examples of parallel evolution at the genetic and phenotypic levels are fairly common, but the driving selective agents often remain elusive. Similarly, the role of phenotypic plasticity in facilitating early stages of parallel evolution is unclear. We investigated whether the relaxation of predation pressure associated with the colonization of freshwater ponds by nine-spined sticklebacks (Pungitius pungitius) likely explains the divergence in complex behaviours between marine and pond populations, and whether this divergence is parallel. Using laboratory-raised individuals exposed to different levels of perceived predation risk, we calculated vectors of phenotypic divergence for four behavioural traits between habitats and predation risk treatments. We found a significant correlation between the directions of evolutionary divergence and phenotypic plasticity, suggesting that habitat divergence in behaviour is aligned with the response to relaxation of predation pressure. Finally, we show that this alignment is found across multiple pairs of populations, and that the relaxation of predation pressure has likely driven parallel evolution of behaviour in this species.

Testing the selectiveness of electric harps: a mitigation method for reducing Asian hornet impact at beehives.

The Asian hornet (Vespa velutina) has rapidly become a source of stress for the beekeeping sector. Several methods have been developed to control its impact and spread, though some of these impose a high risk for native insects. Among these methods are electric harps, which are physical barriers that electrocute hornets passing through two wires powered by a current generator. However, the risk to local fauna of electric harps has not previously been tested. Here we evaluated the selectiveness and risk of damage for local entomofauna of the electric harps in a study carried out over three years and four locations in Girona province (NE Catalonia, Spain). The electric harps showed a high selectiveness, with 82.9% of all insects trapped (3,902 individuals) catalogued as Asian hornets, although this greatly varied over years and locations with values ranging from 20.5% to 94.3%. The risk damage of electric harps for local entomofauna was very low in all surveyed areas and years. Native insects accounted for, as a mean, 1.7% of all insects trapped over the study period (range 0-4.5%). Accordingly, the electric harps imply a low risk for the native European hornet Vespa crabro, since only 0.1% of the captures belonged to that species. Our results suggest that electric harps might be a useful method to reduce predation pressure of the Asian hornet at beehives while imposing a low risk for local entomofauna. The employment of standardised techniques, such as the placement of electric harps, may be useful to assess inter-annual variations or site-specific differences on the predation pressure of the Asian hornet at beehives. Further research should evaluate whether the placement of electric harps improves bee colony survival or vigour parameters (i.e. honey production, amount of brood, pollen, etc.).

Predation increases multiple components of microbial diversity in activated sludge communities

Protozoan predators form an essential component of activated sludge communities that is tightly linked to wastewater treatment efficiency. Nonetheless, very little is known how protozoan predation is channelled via bacterial communities to affect ecosystem functioning. Therefore, we experimentally manipulated protozoan predation pressure in activated-sludge communities to determine its impacts on microbial diversity, composition and putative functionality. Different components of bacterial diversity such as taxa richness, evenness, genetic diversity and beta diversity all responded strongly and positively to high protozoan predation pressure. These responses were non-linear and levelled off at higher levels of predation pressure, supporting predictions of hump-shaped relationships between predation pressure and prey diversity. In contrast to predation intensity, the impact of predator diversity had both positive (taxa richness) and negative (evenness and phylogenetic distinctiveness) effects on bacterial diversity. Furthermore, predation shaped the structure of bacterial communities. Reduction in top-down control negatively affected the majority of taxa that are generally associated with increased treatment efficiency, compromising particularly the potential for nitrogen removal. Consequently, our findings highlight responses of bacterial diversity and community composition as two distinct mechanisms linking protozoan predation with ecosystem functioning in activated sludge communities.

Morph Composition Matters in the Gouldian Finch (Chloebia gouldiae): Involvement of Red-Headed Birds Increases Vigilance

Animals invest in costly vigilance to detect threats. Joining groups reduces these costs, which can be further reduced in mixed-species assemblages. In colour-polymorphic species, morphs often experience different predation pressure and vary in a variety of traits. However, little is known about differences in vigilance or how group composition affects vigilance. The aim was to investigate whether higher conspicuousness increased vigilance and whether vigilance was reduced in mixed-morph groups like in mixed-species assemblages. I tested vigilance in the colour-polymorphic Gouldian Finch (Chloebia gouldiae). Same sex pairs of different age and of either pure (red-red or black-black) or mixed head colour were exposed to three contexts (familiar, changed and novel environment) and head movements were recorded. All birds reduced the frequency of head movements with increasing novelty, indicating different vigilance strategies (switching from a searching to a tracking strategy) depending on the situation. While vigilance did not differ between morphs, morph composition mattered. Black-headed pairs made fewer head movements than mixed-head colour pairs. Results indicated that conspicuousness did not affect vigilance, possibly due to existing adaptations to reduce predation risk. However, whenever red-headed birds were involved, vigilance increased either because of higher group conspicuousness or prevalence of aggression.

Macroinvertebrate community responses to mammal control - Evidence for top-down trophic effects

<p>New Zealand’s invertebrates are characterised by extraordinary levels of endemism and a tendency toward gigantism, flightlessness and longevity. These characteristics have resulted in a high vulnerability to introduced mammals (i.e. possums, rats, mice, and stoats) which are not only a serious threat to these invertebrates, but have also altered food web interactions over the past two-hundred years. The establishment of fenced reserves and the aerial application of 1080 toxin are two methods of mammal control used in New Zealand to exclude and reduce introduced mammals, respectively. Responses of ground-dwelling invertebrates to mammal control, including a consideration of trophic cascades and their interactions, remain unclear. However, in this thesis, I aimed to investigate how changes in mammal communities inside and outside a fenced reserve (ZEALANDIA, Wellington) and before-and-after the application of 1080 in Aorangi Forest, influence the taxonomic and trophic abundance, body size and other traits of ground-dwelling invertebrates on the mainland of New Zealand. I also tested for effects of habitat variables (i.e. vegetation and elevation), fluctuations in predator populations (i.e. mice, rats and birds) and environmental variables (i.e. temperature). Additionally, I investigated how squid-bait suspended over pitfall traps influenced the sampling of ground weta and other invertebrates in Aorangi and Remutaka Forests. Contrary to my expectations, there were no differences in abundance or body size of invertebrates within ZEALANDIA (which excludes introduced mammals except mice) relative to the outside, except for Staphylinidae which were more abundant outside the fence. Differences in the agents of predation pressure from mainly mammals, outside the reserve, to mostly birds within ZEALANDIA, but potentially little change in net predation pressure, may explain this apparent similarity in ground-invertebrates. No differences in invertebrate communities were also recorded in the 1080-treated area (Aorangi Forest) after one year of the aerial application of 1080. It could imply that the use of this toxin does not produce any apparent detriment to invertebrates at a population level. The application of 1080 usually leads to changes in insectivorous predator (birds and introduced mammals) dynamics in the short-term mainly due to meso-predator release, which may affect invertebrate communities as a result. Temporal and spatial variation of different components of the ecosystem appear to be more significant drivers of invertebrate dynamics, than 1080 mammal control. For example, rats (Rattus spp.) limited the abundance and body size of large invertebrates (i.e. ground weta, cave weta and spiders) in Aorangi and Remutaka Forests. Smaller invertebrates such as gastropods, weevils and springtails were affected directly by spatial factors such as vegetation, while dung beetles responded to an increase in mouse density. Based on a comparison of pitfall trapping methods, I suggest the use of squid baiting as an effective method for sampling ground weta (Hemiandrus spp.) in New Zealand, as they responded positively to these baits. Finally, I propose ground weta and spiders as suitable indicators of rat predation, as they are abundant in forests and easily recognised by non-specialists, and they respond negatively to rat densities. This thesis underlines the importance of studying the effect of introduced mammal dynamics derived from mammal control in an ecosystem approach, to achieve conservation goals both in the short- and long-term, especially considering the New Zealand Government’s ambitious goal of eradicating three of the most prevalent mammal predators (rats, possums and stoats) by 2050.</p>

Macroinvertebrate community responses to mammal control - Evidence for top-down trophic effects

<p>New Zealand’s invertebrates are characterised by extraordinary levels of endemism and a tendency toward gigantism, flightlessness and longevity. These characteristics have resulted in a high vulnerability to introduced mammals (i.e. possums, rats, mice, and stoats) which are not only a serious threat to these invertebrates, but have also altered food web interactions over the past two-hundred years. The establishment of fenced reserves and the aerial application of 1080 toxin are two methods of mammal control used in New Zealand to exclude and reduce introduced mammals, respectively. Responses of ground-dwelling invertebrates to mammal control, including a consideration of trophic cascades and their interactions, remain unclear. However, in this thesis, I aimed to investigate how changes in mammal communities inside and outside a fenced reserve (ZEALANDIA, Wellington) and before-and-after the application of 1080 in Aorangi Forest, influence the taxonomic and trophic abundance, body size and other traits of ground-dwelling invertebrates on the mainland of New Zealand. I also tested for effects of habitat variables (i.e. vegetation and elevation), fluctuations in predator populations (i.e. mice, rats and birds) and environmental variables (i.e. temperature). Additionally, I investigated how squid-bait suspended over pitfall traps influenced the sampling of ground weta and other invertebrates in Aorangi and Remutaka Forests. Contrary to my expectations, there were no differences in abundance or body size of invertebrates within ZEALANDIA (which excludes introduced mammals except mice) relative to the outside, except for Staphylinidae which were more abundant outside the fence. Differences in the agents of predation pressure from mainly mammals, outside the reserve, to mostly birds within ZEALANDIA, but potentially little change in net predation pressure, may explain this apparent similarity in ground-invertebrates. No differences in invertebrate communities were also recorded in the 1080-treated area (Aorangi Forest) after one year of the aerial application of 1080. It could imply that the use of this toxin does not produce any apparent detriment to invertebrates at a population level. The application of 1080 usually leads to changes in insectivorous predator (birds and introduced mammals) dynamics in the short-term mainly due to meso-predator release, which may affect invertebrate communities as a result. Temporal and spatial variation of different components of the ecosystem appear to be more significant drivers of invertebrate dynamics, than 1080 mammal control. For example, rats (Rattus spp.) limited the abundance and body size of large invertebrates (i.e. ground weta, cave weta and spiders) in Aorangi and Remutaka Forests. Smaller invertebrates such as gastropods, weevils and springtails were affected directly by spatial factors such as vegetation, while dung beetles responded to an increase in mouse density. Based on a comparison of pitfall trapping methods, I suggest the use of squid baiting as an effective method for sampling ground weta (Hemiandrus spp.) in New Zealand, as they responded positively to these baits. Finally, I propose ground weta and spiders as suitable indicators of rat predation, as they are abundant in forests and easily recognised by non-specialists, and they respond negatively to rat densities. This thesis underlines the importance of studying the effect of introduced mammal dynamics derived from mammal control in an ecosystem approach, to achieve conservation goals both in the short- and long-term, especially considering the New Zealand Government’s ambitious goal of eradicating three of the most prevalent mammal predators (rats, possums and stoats) by 2050.</p>

An injured pachypleurosaur (Diapsida: Sauropterygia) from the Middle Triassic Luoping Biota indicating predation pressure in the Mesozoic

The Middle Triassic Luoping Biota in south-west China represents the inception of modern marine ecosystems, with abundant and diverse arthropods, fishes and marine reptiles, indicating recovery from the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Here we report a new specimen of the predatory marine reptile Diandongosaurus, based on a nearly complete skeleton. The specimen is larger than most other known pachypleurosaurs, and the body shape, caniniform teeth, clavicle with anterior process, and flat distal end of the anterior caudal ribs show its affinities with Diandongosaurus acutidentatus, while the new specimen is approximately three times larger than the holotype. The morphological characters indicate that the new specimen is an adult of D. acutidentatus, allowing for ontogenetic variation. The fang-like teeth and large body size confirm it was a predator, but the amputated hind limb on the right side indicate itself had been predated by an unknown hunter. Predation on such a large predator reveals that predation pressure in the early Mesozoic was intensive, a possible early hint of the Mesozoic Marine Revolution.