Bringing People at the Threshold of Development: the State’s Unconditional Accountability to Protect Human Rights: A New Jurisprudence for Protecting Human Rights and Promoting Development

The article postulates that the state of poverty is an outcome of the deprivation of basic human rights for dignified life, obliteration of the freedom to individual autonomy and presence of social exclusion with stigma. Human rights advocacy can have no meaning at all if it ignores to ‘emphasize the need of protecting the right to have rights’.

Thermal requirements and estimate number of generations of Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in different Eucalyptus plantations regions

To use Palmistichus elaeisis Delvare and LaSalle, 1993 (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in a biological control programme of Thyrinteina arnobia (Stoll, 1782) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), it is necessary to study thermal requirements, because temperature can affect the metabolism and bioecological aspects. The objective was to determine the thermal requirements and estimate the number of generations of P. elaeisis in different Eucalyptus plantations regions. After 24 hours in contact with the parasitoid, the pupae was placed in 16, 19, 22, 25, 28 and 31 °C, 70 ± 10% of relative humidity and 14 hours of photophase. The duration of the life cycle of P. elaeisis was reduced with the increase in the temperature. At 31 °C the parasitoid could not finish the cycle in T. arnobia pupae. The emergence of P. elaeisis was not affected by the temperature, except at 31 °C. The number of individuals was between six and 1238 per pupae, being higher at 16 °C. The thermal threshold of development (Tb) and the thermal constant (K) of this parasitoid were 3.92 °C and 478.85 degree-days (GD), respectively, allowing for the completion of 14.98 generations per year in Linhares, Espírito Santo State, 13.87 in Pompéu and 11.75 in Viçosa, Minas Gerais State and 14.10 in Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul State.

PREDICTING THE TIME OF HATCH OF THE STRAWBERRY APHID, CHAETOSIPHON FRAGAEFOLII (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)

The rate of hatch of overwintered eggs of the strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii (Cockerell), at five temperatures in controlled environment chambers was used to determine the thermal threshold of development. Samples of eggs were taken from two field locations several times before hatch. These samples were subdivided and placed into two or three different constant temperature chambers. The day-degree requirements for hatching from the time of collection were estimated. These estimates corresponded to the number of day-degrees actually accumulated in the field between the time of egg collection and the time of hatching.This method of simulating the effect of temperature on egg development was an accurate method of predicting the time of hatch in the field at least 3 weeks prior to the observed time.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE EMERGENCE OF OVERWINTERING PHYLLONORYCTER BLANCARDELLA (LEPIDOPTERA: GRACILLARIIDAE) AND ITS PARASITE APANTELES ORNIGIS (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) IN NOVA SCOTIA

Adult emergence of the spotted tentiform leafminer, Phyllonorycter blancardella (F.), and its primary endoparasite, Apanteles ornigis Weed, from overwintering pupae was studied at five constant temperatures. Days to 50% emergence for P. blancardella were 55.4, 24.4, 14.4, 10.8, and 8.3 and for A. ornigis were ∞, 47.8, 25.6, 17.6, and 15.1 at 8°, 12°, 16°, 20°, and 24 °C, respectively. The rate of pupal development was approximately a linear function of temperature for P. blancardella but was nonlinear for A. ornigis. The threshold of development, estimated from the 50% emergence data, was 4.4 ±.33 °C for the host and 9.6 ±.50 °C for the parasite. The development time for the host was approximately one half that for the parasite at temperatures 12°–24 °C. The difference in emergence dates between host and parasite under normal Nova Scotia conditions was predicted to be 35 days. The timing of chemical controls in an integrated pest management program could be predicted from the accumulation of daily development units based on the power function for both species, provided a field study is undertaken to confirm the extrapolation to diurnal temperature regimes.

AGE, FECUNDITY, WEIGHT, AND THE INTRINSIC RATE OF INCREASE OF THE LUPINE APHID MACROSIPHUM ALBIFRONS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)

The fecundity, survivorship, and rate of development of the lupine aphid Macrosiphum albifrons Essig were determined and summarized into life tables from which the intrinsic rate of increase was computed. The life tables, using a time scale in days, were converted to a variable life table model using a physiological time scale based on an estimated thermal threshold of development of 3.59° (± 0.587°). A method of determining age and fecundity of adult aphids was developed from weight and embryo content. The use of intrinsic rate of increase and of the method of aging in field population dynamics are discussed.

An ecological study of an Australian dung beetle, Onthophagus granulatus Boheman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), using physiological age-grading techniques

The distribution and seasonal activity of Onthophagus granulatus Boh. was studied at two sites in eastern Australia. It is a univoltine species, with peaks of activity in spring and early summer. Breeding cycles and periods of stress were demonstrated by the proportions of newly emerged, nulliparous and parous beetles and those resorbing oocytes. The optimum temperature for brood production was 25°C. The threshold of development was 11·3°C, and 495 day-degrees C were required for development from egg to adult. Dung quality and drought were important factors affecting survival and brood production in the field. The distribution of the species in south-eastern Australia is limited by summer rainfall and temperature.

Growth, Development and Innate Capacity for Increase in Aphytis Chrysomphali Mercet and A. Melinus Debach, Parasites of California Red Scale, Aonidiella Aurantii (Mask.), In Relation to Temperature.

A, melinus produced more female progeny and more than twice as many total progeny as A. chrysomphali; it also destroyed almost twice as many hosts through oviposition and mutiliation. A. chrysomphali had a longer post-oviposition period than A. melinus, especially at 30�C. The proportion of single progeny in a host was higher for A, chrysomphali than for A. melinus at all temperatures, and was related to temperature positively in A. chrysomphali and inversely in A. melinus. Large old female A. melinus produced only males at the end of their lives; they did not mate at that stage when offered males, not because they were aged but because they mate only once in their lives. As temperature decreased, female A. melznus ceased producing females earlier, probably because temperature affected either longevity of sperms or the mechanism controlling their release. Differential mortality, temperature, and age of mothers all influenced sex ratio. Pupal mortality was inversely related to temperature within the observed range 20-30�C; in female pupae of A. chrysomphali it was lower than that in either female or male pupae of A. melinus; it was higher in male than female pupae in A. melinus. A. melinus lived longer than A. chrysomphali at all temperatures. Duration of development was longer for A. chrysomphali than for A. melinus at 30�C, but shorter at 20 and 25�C. The threshold of development was 8.5C for A. chrysomphali and 11C for A. melinus. A. chrysomphali had a higher rm at 20 and 25�C than A. melinus, but much lower at 30�C. The highest rate of increase was at > 30�C for A. melinus, and at about 25�C for A. chrysomphali. The rm of the parasites was 3.1-5.0 times that of red scale, depending on parasite species and temperature. A. chrysomphali is smaller than A. melinus, and from the positive relationship between adaptation to cold and speed of development, and the negative relationship between speed of development and size, a negative relationship between size and adaptation to cold within Aphytis spp. may be postulated. A. chrysomphali is more adapted to cold and less to heat than A. melinus. This explains the seasonal and annual fluctuation in their relative abundance in southern Australia. The species would complement each other in controlling red scale; from the data presented here it is possible that Aphytis spp. in Australia may have evolved into more efficient control agents of red scale than elsewhere. Knowledge on the searching ability of Aphytis at different host densities is wanting.