Migration of the Industrial Wastewater in Fractured Rock Masses Based on the Thermal-Hydraulic-Mechanical Coupled Model

Industrial wastewater may have a long-time effect on the environment and human life as it goes underground and causes serious pollution continuously. To have a well understanding of the migration of such wastewater is a basic task for industrial wastewater treatment as well as industrial design. To study the migration mechanism of industrial wastewater in rock formations, the governing equations such as mechanics, seepage, heat, and mass transfer are reviewed, referenced, and proposed. The thermal (T)-hydraulic (H)-mechanical (M) coupled model of the multimedia of matrix-fault and matrix-fracture-fault is established. The influence of the fault and the fractures on the pressure distribution and contaminant migration is analyzed. The influence of fault length, width, dip angle, permeability, and temperature of wastewater on contaminant migration is parametrically studied. The following results can be obtained. (1) The fracture quantitively affects the concentration distribution, while the fault dominates the concentration distribution and contaminant migration. (2) The migration of the contaminants can be geometrically divided into 3 zones along the direction of the fault: the saturation zone, the rapid diffusion zone, and the concentration decrease zone. (3) There is a peak of the concentration along the bottom of the model. The position of the peak is the projection of the endpoint of the fault. (4) The fault length has the most significant effect on contaminant accumulation. The temperature of the wastewater has the minimum effect on the contaminant accumulation. (5) The accumulation of concentrations can be divided into 2 stages, the slow growth stage (before 20 years) and the rapid growth stage (after 20 years). The main channel of contaminant migration in the slow growth stage is a fault. During the rapid growth stage, the contaminants penetrate through the rock matrix as well as the fault.

Initial effective stress controls the nature of earthquakes

<p><span>  </span>Modern geophysics highlights that the slip behaviour response of faults is variable in space and time and can result in slow or fast ruptures. Despite geodetical, seismological, experimental and field observations, the origin of this variation of the rupture velocity in nature, as well as the physics behind it, is still debated. Here, we first discuss the scaling relationships existing for the different types of fault slip observed in nature and we highlight how they appear to stem from the same physical mechanism. Second, we reproduce at the scale of the laboratory the complete spectrum of rupture velocities observed in nature. Our results show that when the nucleation length is within the fault length, the rupture velocity can range from a few millimetres to kilometres per second, depending on the available energy at the onset of slip. Our results are analysed in the framework of linear elastic fracture mechanics and highlight that the nature of seismicity is governed mostly by the initial stress level along the faults. Our results reveal that faults presenting similar frictional properties can rupture at both slow and fast rupture velocities. This combined set of field and experimental observations bring a new explanation of the dominance of slow rupture fronts in the shallow part of the crust and in areas presenting large fluid pressure, where initial stresses are expected to remain relatively low during the seismic cycle.</p>

High-resolution surface faulting from the 1983 Idaho Lost River Fault Mw 6.9 earthquake and previous events

We present high-resolution mapping and surface faulting measurements along the Lost River fault (Idaho-USA), a normal fault activated in the 1983 (Mw 6.9) earthquake. The earthquake ruptured ~35 km of the fault with a maximum throw of ~3 m. From new 5 to 30 cm-pixel resolution topography collected by an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, we produce the most comprehensive dataset of systematically measured vertical separations from ~37 km of fault length activated by the 1983 and prehistoric earthquakes. We provide Digital Elevation Models, orthophotographs, and three tables of: (i) 757 surface rupture traces, (ii) 1295 serial topographic profiles spaced 25 m apart that indicate rupture zone width and (iii) 2053 vertical separation measurements, each with additional textual and numerical fields. Our novel dataset supports advancing scientific knowledge about this fault system, refining scaling laws of intra-continental faults, comparing to other earthquakes to better understand faulting processes, and contributing to global probabilistic hazard approaches. Our methodology can be applied to other fault zones with high-resolution topographic data.

Segmentation of the Eastern Reelfoot Rift Margin: Reinterpretation of the Northeastern Reelfoot Rift Fault Geometry and Seismic Potential

The eastern Reelfoot rift margin (ERRM) poses a significant seismic hazard to the city of Memphis, Tennessee, and may be capable of generating moment magnitude 7 earthquakes. The goal of this study is to refine the fault structure and geometry of the ERRM, to improve understanding of the associated seismic hazard. We apply multiple filters (e.g., reduction-to-pole and horizontal-gradient) to aeromagnetic intensity data, to visualize the magnetic signature of ERRM basement rocks. To remove ambiguity in our fault interpretations from the magnetic data, we restrict our interpretations to magnetic gradients that correspond to geologic and geophysical evidence of faulting and rank faults on a confidence scheme. From near Covington, Tennessee, to Dyersburg, Tennessee, we interpret the ERRM to be segmented into nine intersecting faults that trend northeast, north-northeast, and north-northwest (two high confidence, four intermediate confidence, and three low confidence). We calculate the moment magnitude potential of each fault based on the estimated fault length. The minimum moment magnitude potential is 6.0, and the maximum is 7.0.

Palaeo-earthquake magnitudes on the Dzhungarian fault, N. Tien shan, and implications for the rupture processes of intraplate strike-slip faults

<p>Long-term and present-day crustal deformation in the northern Tien Shan is poorly known, but is a key to understanding the mode of lithospheric deformation deep within the continental interiors, as well as the hazards posed by the slow-moving intraplate faults. Driven by the India-Asia collision, the NW-SE strike-slip faults and the E-W range-front thrust faults in the interior of Tien Shan together accommodate about 15-20 mm/yr of shortening. Here we focus on the NW-SE striking Dzhungarian fault (DZF) and the E-W striking Lepsy fault (LPF), which are large oblique strike-slip faults bounding the Dzhungarian Alatau, northern Tien Shan. Two large historical earthquakes in ~1716 and 1812 (Mw 8) were recorded in this region, and clear fault traces as well as scarps are visible from satellite images along some of the main faults. However, their geometries, slip rates, mode of deformation, expected earthquake magnitudes and recurrence interval have not been studied in details. A previous study suggested that the LPF ruptured in a seismic event around 400 yrBP that might be the 1716 earthquake known from historical records. Offsets of over 15 m were found over a fault length of 120 km, indicating a magnitude in the range Mw 7.5-8.2. The slip to length ratio for the LPF is unusally high, suggesting either that faults in this region are capable of generating very large earthquakes for a given fault length, or that the rupture length is underestimated.</p><p>Using a combination of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) and orthophotos from High Mountain Asia (NASA), Pleiades optical imagery (CNES), drone photos and multi-temporal interferometric synthetic-aperture radar (InSAR) from the Sentinel-1 satellites, we identify the geomorphic signatures and quantify the long-term and short-term strain accumulation along the faults. The ~400 km DZF shows evidence for relatively ‘fresh’ rupturing along much of its length. We calculate an average lateral slip per event of 9.9 m from offset stacking analysis, which underlines the potential future large earthquakes on this fault. The proximity of the DZF and LPF ruptures and equivalent level of preservation opens the possibility that they were formed in a single earthquake event, with a moment-magnitude greater than 8. We also present estimates of long-term and short-term rates of slip across the DZF in order to estimate average recurrence intervals and to build a kinematic model of the faulting in the Northern Tien Shan.</p>

A model for off-fault plastic poroelastic deformation and its effects on permeability

<p>Fractured reservoirs comprise finite or discrete fracture networks; if these are conductive, they form heterogeneously distributed high-permeability streaks. These are generally referred as fracture corridors. Unless they occur as joint swarms, fracture corridors are simply seismic or sub-seismic fault zones with connected fractures in the near-fault damage zone. Several studies document the decrease in rock-matrix permeability adjacent to the fault surface, within the damage zone. Although the damage zone creates fracture connectivity and high permeability anisotropy for reservoirs, the matrix fracture feeding mechanism is related to matrix permeability generally described by a transfer function. This transfer function accounts for fracture properties (i.e. fracture density, length and connectivity), relative fluid mobilities, imbibition and reservoir properties (i.e. matrix permeability). Commonly, the matrix permeability for all transfer functions is considered in terms of a representative rock type permeability. However, observational evidence and our numerical model show that slip induced deformation causes significant strain on matrix in vicinity to the fault surface causing a permeability decrease in the matrix.</p><p>In this study, we present a new approach to model strain in a porous medium and related permeability changes due to stress perturbation from slip around pure strike slip faults. The fault length is used to scale the amount fault slip. For given/computed dislocation (slip) the off-fault strain is then calculated to derive porosity and permeability changes. In our study we propose an off-fault plastic-poroelastic deformation model for any known fault length and known rock mechanical and petrophysical properties of the surrounding material. Our modeling technique will help to better quantify fault transmissivity in geo-reservoirs.</p>

On the Nature of Fault Slip: From the Field to the Lab

<p>Modern geophysics highlights that the slip behaviour response of faults is variable in space and time and can result in slow or fast ruptures. Despite geodetical, seismological, experimental and field observations, the origin of this variation of the rupture velocity in nature, as well as the physics behind it, is still debated. Here, we first discuss the scaling relationships existing for the different types of fault slip observed in nature and we highlight how they appear to stem from the same physical mechanism. Second, we reproduce at the scale of the laboratory the complete spectrum of rupture velocities observed in nature. Our results show that when the nucleation length is within the fault length, the rupture velocity can range from a few millimetres to kilometres per second, depending on the available energy at the onset of slip. Our results are analysed in the framework of linear elastic fracture mechanics and highlight that the nature of seismicity is governed mostly by the initial stress level along the faults. Our results reveal that faults presenting similar frictional properties can rupture at both slow and fast rupture velocities. This combined set of field and experimental observations bring a new explanation of the dominance of slow rupture fronts in the shallow part of the crust and in areas presenting large fluid pressure, where initial stresses are expected to remain relatively low during the seismic cycle.</p>

Locating fault tips to aid fault length identification: an example from the Gulf of Corinth rift

<p>Crustal-scale active normal faults dominate seismic hazard in some regions and have been intensely studied. However, the lateral tips of these structures have received relatively little attention in the literature so their geometries are poorly known. This is an important omission because locating the tips of normal faults is vital in order to define fault lengths and calculate maximum expected earthquake magnitudes. Identifying tips will be challenging if their geometries, kinematics and rates of deformation are poorly known. Consequently, incorrectly identified tips and hence fault lengths may contribute to uncertainty in Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment.</p><p>We investigate the geometry, rates and kinematics of active normal faulting in the western tip zone of the South Alkyonides Fault System (SAFS) (Gulf of Corinth, Greece) by detailed fault mapping and fault offset dating using a combination of new <sup>234</sup>U/<sup>230</sup>Th coral ages and in situ <sup>36</sup>Cl cosmogenic exposure ages on wave-cut platforms deformed by faults.</p><p>Our results reveal that there is no clear singular fault tip and that distributed deformation in the tip zone of the SAFS occurs across as many as eight faults arranged within ~700 m across strike, each of which deforms deposits and landforms associated with the 125 ka marine terrace of Marine Isotope Stage 5e. Summed throw-rates across strike achieve values as high as 1.6 mm/yr, values that approach those close to the centre of the crustal-scale fault of 2-3 mm/yr from Holocene palaeoseismology and 3-4 mm/yr from GPS geodesy. Considering the uncertainty in the location of the western tip induced by distributed faulting, the SAFS fault length is uncertain by up to ± 6%, which equates to a total maximum magnitude uncertainty of Mw 0.1.</p><p>The calculated tip displacement gradient summed across parallel faults since 125 ka for the western tip zone of the SAFS is within the upper range compared to data from other normal crustal-scale faults. We discuss stress interaction between the SAFS and a neighbouring along-strike crustal-scale fault as a potential cause of the observed fault complexity and anomalously high throw and investigate this by undertaking Coulomb stress transfer modelling. The results from the study are discussed within the context of fault-based seismic hazard assessment.</p><p> We conclude that identifying the locations of fault tips is challenging. While the results of this study may or may not be typical of other tip zones owing to the interaction, there is a need for further studies that explore the geometry of both non-interacting and interacting fault tip zones.</p>

From mapped faults to fault-length earthquake magnitude (FLEM): a test on Italy with methodological implications

Empirical scaling relationships between fault or slip dimensions and earthquake magnitudes are often used to assess the maximum possible earthquake magnitude of a territory. Upon the assumption of the reactivability of any fault, the earthquake magnitudes derived from the surface fault length (FLEM) are compared at the national scale in Italy against catalogued magnitudes. FLEMs are obtained by considering a comprehensive fault dataset regardless of fault age, stress field orientation, strain rate, etc. In particular, (1) a comprehensive catalogue of all known faults is compiled by merging the most complete databases available; (2) FLEM is then derived from fault length; and (3) the resulting FLEMs are compared (i.e. the mathematical difference) with catalogued earthquake magnitudes. Results show that the largest FLEMs as well as the largest differences between FLEMs and catalogued magnitudes are observed for poorly constrained faults, mainly inferred from subsurface data. It is suggested that these areas have to be further characterized to better estimate fault dimension and segmentation and hence properly assess the FLEM. Where, in contrast, the knowledge of faults is geologically well constrained, the calculated FLEM is often consistent with the catalogued seismicity, with the 2σ value of the distribution of differences being 1.47 and reducing to 0.53 when considering only the Mw≥6.5 earthquakes. Our work highlights areas, in Italy, where further detailed studies on faults are required.