Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review

A systematic review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines from 1927 until 2019 about blood-borne pathogens present in NHPs of the Neotropical region (i.e., South America and Middle America). Results: A total of 127 publications were found in several databases. We found in 25 genera (132 species) of NHPs a total of 56 blood-borne pathogens in 197 records where Protozoa has the highest number of records in neotropical NHPs (n = 128) compared to bacteria (n = 12) and viruses (n = 57). Plasmodium brasilianum and Trypanosoma cruzi are the most recorded protozoa in NHP. The neotropical primate genus with the highest number of blood-borne pathogens recorded is Alouatta sp. (n = 32). The use of non-invasive samples for neotropical NHPs remains poor in a group where several species are endangered or threatened. A combination of serological and molecular techniques is common when detecting blood-borne pathogens. Socioecological and ecological risk factors facilitate the transmission of these parasites. Finally, a large number of countries remain unsurveyed, such as Ecuador, which can be of public health importance. Conclusions and significance: NHPs are potential reservoirs of a large number of blood-borne pathogens. In Ecuador, research activities should be focused on bacteria and viruses, where there is a gap of information for neotropical NHPs, in order to implement surveillance programs with regular and effective monitoring protocols adapted to NHPs.

Atlantic Forest Malaria: A Review of More than 20 Years of Epidemiological Investigation

In the south and southeast regions of Brazil, cases of malaria occur outside the endemic Amazon region near the Atlantic Forest in some coastal states, where Plasmodium vivax is the recognized parasite. Characteristics of cases and vectors, especially Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii, raise the hypothesis of a zoonosis with simians as reservoirs. The present review aims to report on investigations of the disease over a 23-year period. Two main sources have provided epidemiological data: the behavior of Anopheles vectors and the genetic and immunological aspects of Plasmodium spp. obtained from humans, Alouatta simians, and Anopheles spp. mosquitoes. Anopheles (K.) cruzii is the most captured species in the forest canopy and is the recognized vector. The similarity between P. vivax and Plasmodium simium and that between Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium brasilianum shared between simian and human hosts and the involvement of the same vector in the transmission to both hosts suggest interspecies transfer of the parasites. Finally, recent evidence points to the presence of Plasmodium falciparum in a silent cycle, detected only by molecular methods in asymptomatic individuals and An. (K.) cruzii. In the context of malaria elimination, it is paramount to assemble data about transmission in such non-endemic low-incidence areas.

Naturally Acquired Humoral Immunity against Malaria Parasites in Non-Human Primates from the Brazilian Amazon, Cerrado and Atlantic Forest

Non-human primates (NHPs) have been shown to be infected by parasites of the genus Plasmodium, the etiological agent of malaria in humans, creating potential risks of zoonotic transmission. Plasmodium brasilianum, a parasite species similar to P. malariae of humans, have been described in NHPs from Central and South America, including Brazil. The merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP1), besides being a malaria vaccine candidate, is highly immunogenic. Due to such properties, we tested this protein for the diagnosis of parasite infection. We used recombinant proteins of P. malariae MSP1, as well as of P. falciparum and P. vivax, for the detection of antibodies anti-MSP1 of these parasite species, in the sera of NHPs collected in different regions of Brazil. About 40% of the NHP sera were confirmed as reactive to the proteins of one or more parasite species. A relatively higher number of reactive sera was found in animals from the Atlantic Forest than those from the Amazon region, possibly reflecting the former more intense parasite circulation among NHPs due to their proximity to humans at a higher populational density. The presence of Plasmodium positive NHPs in the surveyed areas, being therefore potential parasite reservoirs, needs to be considered in any malaria surveillance program.

Plasmodium brasilianum ist Plasmodium malariae: Malaria-quartana-Parasiten im venezolanischen Amazonas

ZUSAMMENFASSUNGWir untersuchten Malariaproben aus weit entlegenen Yanomamidörfern des venezolanischen Amazonas und sequenzierten Teile der kleinen ribosomalen Untereinheit (18S) und des Circumsporozoitenantigens (CSP). Zwölf Patienten waren Träger von Malaria-quartana-Plasmodien, deren 18S-Sequenz zu 100 % identisch war mit P. brasilianum des Roten Brüllaffen (Alouatta seniculus). Auch das CSP-Antigen zeigte identische Repeatregionen. Zum ersten Mal wurden als P. brasilianum bezeichnete Plasmodien in einer natürlich erworbenen Infektion des Menschen nachgewiesen. Wir stellen die Hypothese auf, dass Malaria-quartana-Parasiten zwischen Affe und Mensch leicht hin und her wechseln und keine Spezifizität für Säugerwirte zeigen. Quartane Malaria sollte als echte Anthropozoonose betrachtet werden. Da der Name P. brasilianum eine eigenständige Spezies suggeriert, schlagen wir eine nomenklatorische Revision vor. Das große Wirtsreservoir unterscheidet quartane Malaria von anderen Malariaarten und erfordert spezifische Forschungsansätze und Kontrollstrategien im Sinne des One-Health-Konzepts.

First Full Draft Genome Sequence of Plasmodium brasilianum

ABSTRACT Plasmodium malariae is a protozoan parasite that can cause human malaria. The simian parasite Plasmodium brasilianum infects New World monkeys from Latin America and is morphologically indistinguishable from P. malariae. Here, we report the first full draft genome sequence for P. brasilianum.