6. Abortion

Buddhist attitudes to abortion are influenced by its belief in rebirth and the idea that life is a never-ending continuum. Many Buddhists, accordingly, feel that abortion is prohibited by the First Precept against taking life. Abortion laws in Buddhist countries range from permissive to prohibitive according to jurisdiction. In some cases, the poor availability of contraceptives has led to increased use of abortion as a means of birth control, although this is now less common in more advanced countries. Early Buddhist texts counsel against abortion, but many feminists feel that ideas about women in such texts are outdated and there is scope for reinterpretation of traditional teachings. Attention has been drawn in recent decades to the Japanese mizuko kuyō memorial service performed following abortions and miscarriages which some feel could be usefully incorporated into Western liturgies.

5. War, violence, and terrorism

‘War, violence, and terrorism’ looks at Buddhist attitudes to conflict. While Buddhist teachings strongly oppose violence, its pacifist ideals have not prevented Buddhist nations from going to war. Some Buddhist treatises on kingship seem to support the concept of a ‘just war’, using arguments similar to those of Christian thinkers like Augustine and Aquinas. On this basis, war can be waged and fought justly, and without negative karmic consequences for the ruler. Contemporary Buddhist responses to terrorism focus on listening, understanding, and reflection. Some Buddhist leaders have been criticized for preaching peace but turning a blind eye to violence in their own countries. War has rarely been used by Buddhists for purposes of religious coercion.

3. Animals and the environment

Is Buddhism truly an ‘eco-friendly’ religion? ‘Animals and the environment’ examines the implications of Buddhist teachings such as that human beings can be reborn as animals and vice versa. While the Buddhist ‘sublime attitudes’ such as kindness and compassion seem at first to favour animals to a greater degree than we find in Christianity, human life still takes precedence in the hierarchy of living beings. Rules about plant life are unclear, with Buddhist writers acknowledging the beauty of both the wilderness and civilization. Vegetarianism is largely seen as a morally superior diet, but meat-eating was common at the time of the Buddha and is widely practised by monks today. Buddhist attitudes toward the natural world are complex and are to some extent overshadowed by the belief that the world as we know it is fundamentally flawed.

1. Buddhist morality

This chapter summarizes the main moral teachings, precepts, and virtues common to the major schools of Buddhism. While these schools often exhibit divergent practices and customs, it seems legitimate to speak of them sharing a common moral core grounded in the teachings of the Buddha originating in the 5th century bce and then handed down largely unaltered through the centuries. A central part of this common core are the Five Precepts observed by lay Buddhists everywhere. The monastic community has its own set of rules and regulations in the Vinaya. Buddhist moral beliefs are underpinned by the cosmic principle of Dharma, of which the law of karma is an aspect. Like science, karma is objective, but unlike science it is not value-free. Karma is concerned with voluntary actions and the good and bad consequences flowing from moral choices.

2. Ethics East and West

To what extent does Buddhism resemble or differ from Western ethics, and does it constitute an ethical system in itself? ‘Ethics East and West’ looks at Buddhism through the lens of three influential Western theories of ethics: deontology, utilitarianism, and virtue ethics. Some thinkers have classified Buddhism as a form of ‘ethical particularism’, or a pluralist system in which the agent is guided by the demands of each unique situation. Others again see it as a form of ‘perfectionism’ because self-development is an overarching theme in Buddhist teachings. There may also be parallels between Buddhism and classical Western philosophical schools such as Stoicism. In modern times we have seen the emergence of ‘socially engaged Buddhism’ as a movement campaigning for social justice and human rights. But does the idea of individual rights contradict the Buddhist doctrine of ‘no-self’?

8. Clones, cyborgs, and singularities

‘Clones, cyborgs, and singularities’ examines modern technological developments such as gene editing, cryonics, and ‘transhumanism’. What implications do these new technologies have for Buddhist doctrines like karma and rebirth? As Buddhism does not believe in a creator God, cloning is not seen as blasphemous. The Buddha could potentially be cloned, but it does not follow from this that there is a ‘Buddha gene’ that played a part in his awakening. Some Buddhists are enthusiastic about forms of biological enhancement such as the implantation of microchips in the brain and look forward to the ‘singularity’ or point when human and machine intelligence will merge creating a new transhuman species. Others are more sceptical about these developments. On the whole, Buddhists do not condemn scientific or technological developments, but neither do they see them as providing a complete answer to the problem of human suffering described in the First Noble Truth.

7. Suicide and euthanasia

In 1963, the Vietnamese Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc burned himself alive to protest government abuses. ‘Suicide and euthanasia’ starts by looking at the impact of this public suicide, which directed Western attention towards Buddhism in the 1960s. Many Buddhists believe that one’s lifespan is determined by karma and so it is wrong to hasten one’s end through suicide in this way. Others believe that suicide may be justified in exceptional circumstances. While the classical position is clearly opposed to euthanasia, Buddhists are not unanimous in their position. While viewed with disapproval in most Asian societies given the respect in which elders are held, Western Buddhists who prioritize personal autonomy may take a more permissive attitude. Buddhism is generally more open about death and encourages its followers to prepare for it in practical ways. The Buddha’s calm, resigned death is the example most would seek to emulate.

4. Sexuality and gender

Is Buddhism more permissive about sex than Christianity? ‘Sexuality and gender’ points out that, contrary to popular belief, Buddhist societies tend to be conservative and even prudish. Marriage is seen as inferior to a life of celibacy. While Buddhism lacks the Christian focus on procreation, classical teachings—reiterated by the Dalai Lama—appear to favour reproductive over non-procreative sexual acts. Homosexuality and transgenderism are not prohibited by Buddhist teachings and are sometimes seen as the result of a past life’s gender asserting itself in the present. Historically, the Buddhist approach to non-standard genders and sexual practices has been one of ‘tolerance yet unacceptance’. Several Buddhist communities and leaders have been associated with sex scandals in recent decades.