Next Generation Science Assessment

The recent release of science education documents such as A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (National Research Council, 2012) marks the transition into a new generation of science education. This transition necessitates a close look at how pre-college science teachers will assess a diverse group of students in ways that are consistent with science education reform. In this chapter, the authors identify current research in science assessment and employ assessment coherence, assessment use, and assessment equity as guiding principles to address the challenges of putting science assessment research into classroom practice. To exemplify these challenges, they describe a study where a research instrument designed to measure scientific reasoning skills was translated into a high school science classroom assessment. The goal of this chapter is to stimulate conversation in the science education community (researchers, assessment developers, teacher educators, administrators, and classroom teachers) about how to put science assessment research successfully into practice and to describe what next steps need to be taken, particularly around assessing diverse student populations.

Analysis of Discourse Practices in Elementary Science Classrooms using Argument-Based Inquiry during Whole-Class Dialogue

This chapter discusses an analysis of discourse practices found in eight different elementary science classrooms that have implemented the Science Writing Heuristic (SWH) approach to argument-based inquiry. The analysis for this study involved examining a segment of whole-class talk that began after a small group presented its claim and evidence and ended when the discussion moved on to a new topic, or when a different group presented. The framework for the analysis of this whole-class dialogue developed through an iterative process that was first informed by previous analysis, review and modification of other instruments, and notable anomalies of difference from this data set. Each classroom was then rated using the Reform Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP), which provided a score for the extent to which the teacher was engaged with reform-based science teaching practices. Our analysis shows that elements of whole-class dialogue in argument-based inquiry classrooms were different across varying levels of RTOP implementation. Overall, low level RTOP implementation (little evidence of reformed-based practice) had a question and answer format during whole class talk that rarely included discourse around scientific reasoning and justification. Higher levels of RTOP implementation were more likely to be focused on student use of scientific evidence to anchor and develop a scientific understanding of “big ideas” in science. These findings are discussed in relation to teacher professional development in argument-based inquiry, science literacy, and the teacher’s and students’ grasp of science practice.

Multiple Perspectives for the Study of Teaching

This chapter outlines a framework that characterizes science teachers’ practical-moral knowledge utilizing the Aristotelian concept of phronesis/practical wisdom. The meaning of phronesis is further explicated and its relevance to science education are outlined utilizing a virtue-based view of knowledge and practical hermeneutics. First, and to give a background, assumptions about teacher knowledge from a constructivist and sociocultural perspective are outlined. Second, the Aristotelian notion of phronesis (practical wisdom) is explicated, especially in terms of how it differs from other characterizations of practical knowledge in science education and how it relates to practical-moral knowledge. Finally, the authors discuss how the very nature of such practical-moral knowledge makes it ambiguous and hard to articulate, and therefore, a hermeneutic model that explores teachers’ practical-moral knowledge indirectly by investigating teachers’ commitments, interpretations, actions, and dialectic interactions is outlined. Implications for research and teacher education are outlined. Empirical examples are used to demonstrate certain points. A virtue-based view of knowledge is not meant to replace others, but as a means to enrich the understandings of the complexity of teacher knowledge and to enhance the effectiveness of teacher educators.

A Tool for Analyzing Science Standards and Curricula for 21st Century Science Education

Twentieth century curricula are no longer sufficient to prepare students for life and work in today’s diverse, fast-paced, technologically driven, and media saturated world of the 21st century. This chapter presents a new framework for analyzing science standards and curricula to determine the extent of alignment with 21st Century essential understandings and skills. The Tool for Analyzing Science Standards and Curricula (TASSC) was developed using the conceptual frameworks proposed by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, and the typology of knowledge proposed by Jurgen Habermas. Development of TASSC relied on an iterative process of refinement, testing, and discussions resulting in an instrument with three sections and related rating scales: content, skills, and additional curricular components. TASSC was piloted using middle school science standards and curricula in the context of two US states (Ohio and New York) and two Arab countries (Lebanon and Qatar). The analysis procedure and individual case study results are presented and discussed in the chapter.

Argumentation and Modeling

There is now growing consensus that K12 science education needs to focus on core epistemic and representational practices of scientific inquiry (Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007; Lehrer & Schauble, 2006). In this chapter, the authors focus on two such practices: argumentation and computational modeling. Novice science learners engaging in these activities often struggle without appropriate and extensive scaffolding (e.g., Klahr, Dunbar, & Fay, 1990; Schauble, Klopfer, & Raghavan, 1991; Sandoval & Millwood, 2005; Lizotte, Harris, McNeill, Marx, & Krajcik, 2003). This chapter proposes that (a) integrating argumentation and modeling can productively engage students in inquiry-based activities that support learning of complex scientific concepts as well as the core argumentation and modeling practices at the heart of scientific inquiry, and (b) each of these activities can productively scaffold the other. This in turn can lead to higher academic achievement in schools, increased self-efficacy in science, and an overall increased interest in science that is absent in most traditional classrooms. This chapter provides a theoretical framework for engaging students in argumentation and a particular genre of computer modeling (i.e., agent-based modeling), illustrates the framework with examples of the authors’ own research and development, and introduces readers to freely available technologies and resources to adopt in classrooms to engage students in the practices discussed in the chapter.

Why Immersive, Interactive Simulation Belongs in the Pedagogical Toolkit of “Next Generation” Science

Demonstration and simulation have long been integral parts of science education. These pedagogical tools are especially helpful when trying to make salient unseen or complex causal interactions, for example during a chemical titration. Understanding of complex causal mechanisms plays a critical role in science education (e.g. Grotzer & Basca, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, Marathe, & Liu, 2007; Wilensky & Resnick, 1999), but few curricula have been developed to expressly address this need (e.g. Harvard Project Zero, 2010). Innovative education technologies have allowed content designers to develop simulations that are both immersive and engaging, and which allow students to explore complex causal relationships even more deeply. In this chapter, the authors highlight various technologies that can be used to leverage complex causal understanding. Drawing upon research from both cognitive science and science education, they outline how each is designed to support student causal learning and suggest a curricular framework in which such learning technologies might optimally be used.

Promoting the Physical Sciences among Middle School Urban Youth through Informal Learning Experiences

Numerous reform efforts in STEM education have been targeted towards increasing the number of qualified STEM professionals in the U.S., which necessitates promoting science participation among secondary and post-secondary students. Some novel designs have focused on the middle school years, when students tend to lose interest in science and formulate opinions on science self-identification. This chapter describes the effectiveness of developing informal physical science experiences for middle school students in underserved urban communities. Several cohorts of students have participated in inquiry-based physics and chemistry weekend classes that incorporated authentic applications from the urban setting, field visits to scientists’ laboratories and museums, advanced educational technology tools, and learning complex scientific concepts. Participants reported significant improvements in their attitudes, knowledge, and appreciation of the physical sciences, suggesting that well designed constructivist physical science programs are potentially transformative in improving students’ academic self-efficacy, confidence, and persistence in science, and positional advantage. The potential of early, rigorous experiences with the physical sciences is explored as a means for improving science participation and diversifying the ranks of future scientists.

Opening Both Eyes

The focus of this chapter is an exploration of integrated geology and biology learning—from past to present. The chapter explains why active and integrated geological and biological learning became the lodestar of the authors’ decade-long EarthScholars Research Group’s research program. The authors argue that using an active and integrated geobiological pedagogical approach when teaching geology or biology provides natural opportunities for students to learn and do authentic scientific inquiry in a manner similar to how contemporary scientists conduct their work. The authors further review research that concerns the active, integrated geobiological science learning approach—in middle school, secondary, and college classrooms, laboratories, and field studies. The authors favor a gradual course transition to this pedagogy, while highlighting the advantages of adopting such an approach—both for teachers and students. Finally, the authors conclude the chapter with challenges and future directions in the design of active, integrated geobiological science learning environments.

Measuring and Facilitating Highly Effective Inquiry-Based Teaching and Learning in Science Classrooms

For the last decade or so there has been a huge push to incorporate best practice into the classroom. For science, this includes bringing effective inquiry-based instruction into all classrooms as a means to engage the learner. However, all inquiry instruction is not equal in terms of improving student achievement and conceptual development. This chapter explores how four critical constructs to learning (curriculum, instruction, discourse, and assessment) can be effectively measured and then used to guide more effective instructional practice. The Electronic Quality of Inquiry Protocol (EQUIP) is an instrument that can be used to measure and then to frame the discussion regarding the quality of inquiry-based instructional practice. Specifically, this chapter provides an overview of EQUIP, details the reliability and validity of EQUIP, shares a sample lesson that is analyzed using EQUIP, explores ways that EQUIP can help with teacher transformation relative to inquiry instruction, and addresses the relationship of EQUIP scores and student achievement data. There is a very high correlation between teacher performance on EQUIP and the ensuing student growth noted during an academic year.

Rooted in Teaching

Research in Environmental Socialization (ES) and the impact of significant life experiences suggest that childhood play in outdoor environments shape later adult activities or career interests. Few studies have investigated how childhood experiences influence curricular interests of preservice and inservice teachers. This preliminary study examines what ES factors of teachers raised in rural and/or non-rural environments reveal about their interests in science topics and field-based learning opportunities. Results suggest that teachers growing up in rural areas were slightly less interested than non-rural teachers in field-based learning and expressed less experience with environmental education. Teachers with more ES experiences (e.g., played in the woods, built forts) expressed greater interest in science-related topics than those who had indicated fewer experiences. Rural teachers tended to have more ES experiences than non-rural teachers. The authors discuss how environmental socialization factors influence teacher preference for curricular programs specific to environmental and ecological topics and raise questions about the changing environmental socialization experiences of preservice and novice teachers.