Sulla’s Sack of Athens

Chapter 10 begins with a consideration of the constitution and political activity in Athens, followed by a change in the Athenian attitude toward Rome and the activities of Mithridates VI of Pontus. Mithridates’ clashes with Rome led to him seek allies in Greece, especially Athens. His case polarized Athenian politics, but the people voted to support him, and hence declared war on Rome. The Romans sent Sulla to Greece, who besieged Athens. Eventually the city capitulated, and Sulla’s men then killed many citizens and destroyed many buildings. The city’s economy was destroyed; Delos defected; further restraints were made on the city’s political life; and even artistic output was affected. Yet Roman visitors to Athens began to increase in the years after Sulla, including to study there, and Greek culture continued to be attractive to Romans.

Being Free without Freedom

Increasing warfare in Greece involved the Athenians, who sided with Rome in their best interests. But in Macedonia, Philip V’s death led to his son Perseus becoming king. Eventually he and Rome went to war—the Third Macedonian War. It ended in Rome’s victory in a battle at the hands of Aemilius Paullus, after which Rome ended the Antigonid dynasty and split up the Macedonian kingdom to bring to an end the Macedonian state. Importantly for Athens, Rome granted the city the island of Delos, which had a profound effect on the Athenian economy because of its prosperity. An Athenian embassy to Rome—the so-called philosophers embassy—also introduced the Romans to the three major types of philosophy studied at Athens, and Romans began to take a serious interest in them, and by extension Greek culture. But increasing warfare in Greece and the belligerence of the Achaean League forced Rome to intervene, and to annex Greece formally into its empire: a watershed year for Greece. Athens did not suffer, and the chapter ends considering its position in the Greek world, and diplomatic dealings with Hellenistic kings like the Ptolemies and Seleucids.

Farewell to Freedom

After a survey of Athens at the height of its power in the Classical period, the chapter focuses on the rise to power of Philip II of Macedonia, how he expanded his kingdom, his relations with Athens, and his eventual military establishment of hegemony over Greece. Conditions in the city, especially during the Lycurgan era, are covered. On Philip’s death, that hegemony continued under his son, Alexander the Great. When Alexander died, the Greeks, led by Athens, revolted against Macedonian rule in what is called the Lamian War. The Macedonian general Antipater re-established Macedonian control, and punished Athens, including installing a garrison in the city, curtailing democracy, and reducing the number of citizens. This was the start of the Hellenistic era, commonly seen as a slump in Athens’ fortunes.

Introduction

WHEN WE THINK OF ANCIENT Athens, the image that invariably comes to mind is of the Classical city: the Athenian military fighting the Persians for Greek freedom; monuments, like the Parthenon and Erechtheum on the Acropolis, beautifying everywhere one looked; the expansive Agora swarming with people conducting business, discussing current affairs, and generally chit-chatting; citizens taking part in their democracy; and a flourishing intellectual, artistic, and literary life, from performances of tragedies and comedies to the teaching of philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, to great orators like Pericles and Demosthenes declaiming in the Assembly, where domestic and foreign policy was debated and made. Life was anchored in the ideals of freedom, autonomy, and democracy, and in the fifth century at least, Athens was an imperial power second to none in the Mediterranean....

Building a New Horizon?

Chapter 14 takes another break from the historical narrative to discuss the major Roman building projects in Athens, which some scholars argue brought about a Romanization of the city and led to its becoming a provincial one. The argument is made that despite Roman buildings, Athens remained a Greek city. The chapter discusses the Roman Agora; the Temple of Roma and Augustus in front of the Parthenon; Agrippa’s Odeum; the lesser public works under the post Julio-Claudian emperors; and Hadrian’s great building program (including the completion of the monumental Temple to Olympian Zeus (Olympieion), a library, an aqueduct), second only to that of Augustus, with a nod to the next chapter to explain why he did what he did. The funerary monument to Philopappus, not at the behest of an emperor but still part of a building program because of Roman style in its architecture, is also discussed. Finally, the chapter examines the transplanting of some temples from the Attic countryside during this period and why this occurred, and the reuse of earlier (especially Classical) statues dedicated to Romans, as part of a plan of the Athenians to keep their heritage alive and not have statues removed to Rome.

Tiberius to Hadrian

From Augustus’ death to Hadrian a succession of emperors in three dynasties came to rule Rome. Chapter 13 begins by thematically covering the relations of the dynasties toward Greece. Then it considers the relations of the emperors toward Athens, and the state of the city (economically, politically) during this period. The chapter also discusses St Paul’s visit to Athens and his sermon to the Areopagus, recounted in Acts. Finally, there is an examination of what is known about individual emperors’ relations with the city, and what they did to it, including cultural life, up to Trajan, and introducing Hadrian, with whom the book will end.

Under the Puppet Ruler

This chapter discusses Athens in the early Hellenistic period, especially when subject to the rule of Demetrius of Phalerum. Alexander’s death also sparked the Wars of the Successors as his senior staff carved up his empire among themselves, but then went to war for even more territory. Athens was involved in these wars, especially when Antipater’s son Cassander won control of Greece, and established a puppet ruler in Athens by name of Demetrius of Phalerum. For ten years Athens was subject to Demetrius’ absolute rule. He introduced restrictive legislation including sumptuary laws, but he did allow Athenian culture, especially drama and philosophy, to flourish, as he himself was an intellectual. The Wars of the Successors eventually led to the execution of the surviving members of the Argead dynasty (Alexander the Great’s half-brother Philip III and Alexander’s son Alexander IV), and eventually also to the toppling of Demetrius of Phalerum by Demetrius Poliorcetes. But Athens was simply exchanging one Macedonian master for another.

Hadrian’s Arch

The final chapter completes the narrative with an examination of Hadrian’s dealings with Athens, thanks to whom the city was again made prominent in the Greek world. After discussing Hadrian’s economic and constitutional arrangements for Athens, the chapter turns to the religious and intellectual life in the city and how these appealed to a polymath like Hadrian. Most importantly there is a focus on Hadrian’s Panhellenion, a league of cities of the East created by the emperor that made Athens its center. As a result, Athens’ reputation and prestige skyrocketed once again, and it became in effect the second city of the Roman Empire after Rome. The Panhellenion also spawned a burst of building activity under Hadrian not seen since the days of Augustus. The completion of the monumental Temple to Olympian Zeus was meant to be the focal point of the Panhellenion. A section on Hadrian’s Arch is also discussed, as the monument was commissioned by the Athenians and shows the extent of Hadrian’s power over the city, Greece, and the east. As a postscript, there is a broad brushstroke description of Athens after Hadrian, including the activity of Herodes Atticus and up to the Herulian sack.

Augustus and Athens

Chapter 12 moves to so-called era of Roman Athens, though this term can also be applied to the city from a century earlier. Augustus and Athens had a rocky relationship at the outset, with the city angering the emperor and having to work to ingratiate itself. Augustus then showed a tolerant attitude toward the city, giving it money to complete the Roman Agora, and Athens was also able to draw on wealthy individuals to fund other projects, with Agrippa also building an odeum in the Agora. Roman visitors continued traveling and studying in the city. After an economic slump there was a rise in prosperity, evidenced by a rise in exports and the flourishing of the port of Piraeus. Culture continued, as did Romans availing themselves of it. But a clear sign of Roman mastery was the introduction of the imperial cult into the city, and the building of a temple to the goddess Roma and Augustus on the Acropolis, the home of the patron deity Athena. One wealthy patron was Julius Nicanor, who acted as some sort of liaison between Athens and Augustus.

The End of “Hellenistic” Athens

With Athens crippled after the Sullan sack, the city suffered greatly afterward and was without the financial means to repair buildings damaged or destroyed by Sulla’s men. Then a series of prominent Romans visited, donating money, which ironically helped to rebuild some things destroyed by the previous Romans. The first was Pompey the Great, who might have helped fund the Tower of the Winds; then Caesar, who gave money for the start of the Roman Agora. But then the Roman Civil War broke out. Athens was not part of it, although after Caesar’s assassination Brutus did spend time in Athens. After Brutus’ and Cassius’ defeats in Greece, the victor, Mark Antony, moved to Athens where the people showered honors on him to earn his favor. He spent time with Cleopatra in Egypt, but made Athens his home. Increasing tension with Octavian, especially over his relationship with Cleopatra, led to the showdown at the battle of Actium and their defeat; the following year Octavian conquered Egypt. Athens thus became subject to another Roman master: Octavian, the future Augustus, at which point the Hellenistic period is commonly seen as ending.