An Unstable Equilibrium

This chapter analyses the nationalist conflict in Sindh since 1988. It examines the multiple stints of the PPP in power, the dismissal of its governments at the Centre and in Sindh and the deepening of the ethnic schism between the Muhajirs and Sindhis under the Muttahida Quomi Movement (MQM). This chapter traces the maturation of Muhajir identity and its political aspirations as expressed through the agency of the MQM, from its rise in the mid-1980s to its fragmentation from 2016 onwards. The chapter analyzes the trends of ethnic violence that engulfed Sindh during this period, examines the 2018 elections in Sindh—which saw the entry into government of the Pakistan Tehreek-I-Insaaf (PTI)—and explores the 2018–20 tug-of war between Islamabad and Karachi over provincial autonomy.

Partition, Migration, and ‘Sons of the Soil’

This chapter chronicles the emergence of a ‘sons of the soil’ movement following the tumultuous events of partition. Partition massively altered the demography of Sindh, with the exodus of Hindus and arrival of Muslim migrants (Muhajirs) from India. The Muhajirs quickly dominated the urban centers, administration and economy of Sindh. This period also saw the beginning of Sindh’s struggle for autonomy as the Centre separated Karachi from Sindh and later merged Sindh with One Unit—the new mega-province that incorporated the whole of West Pakistan. The removal of Sindhi language from public life in the province exacerbated Sindhi feelings of alienation. These developments led to the ‘sons of the soil’ movement of G. M. Syed, which adopted various strategies to resist the hegemony of the Centre.

Enter the Pakistan Peoples Party

This chapter captures the story of Sindh following the rise of the PPP under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. The author examines Bhutto’s victory in the 1970 elections in Sindh on the basis of his charisma, populism and reliance on ethnic outbidding against the Muhajirs. The chapter unpacks the PPP’s time in office and policies, which went a long way toward meeting demands such as the adoption of Sindhi as an official language in the province. This was followed by language riots and the consolidation of the quota system, which favored Sindhis. The chapter also covers the post-Bhutto discontent in Sindh with the rise of the Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD), which captured Sindhi feelings of anguish at the execution of the first Sindhi elected prime minister.

Sindhi Nationalists

This chapter discusses the narrative of the three icons of Sindhi nationalism—G. M. Syed, Ibrahim Joyo and Shaikh Ayaz—and analyzes the separatist Sindhudesh detour as a sign of intra-ethnic outbidding between Syed and Bhutto. The chapter profiles the post-Syed landscape of Sindhi nationalism by focusing on the various nationalist parties led by Rasul Baksh Palijo, Qadir Magsi and others, and on issues such as the Kalabagh Dam, the NFC Award and the Eighteenth Amendment. The chapter sheds light on everyday nationalism as expressed through intellectual activities, musical sessions, anniversaries of the nationalist heroes, and meetings around Sufi shrines.

Conclusion

The conclusion sums up the key findings about the politics and sociology of Sindhi nationalism, beginning with identity construction in Sindh during the British period, inspired by crucial changes in the domains of language, culture, economy and demography. The partition and arrival of Muhajirs in Sindh precipitated the emergence of a ‘sons of the soil’ movement, which was doubly threatened by a hegemonic, interventionist Centre and the dominant ethnic minority of Muhajirs. The conclusion examines the dual role of the PPP as an ethnic entrepreneur in Sindh and a federal party in the country as a whole. Finally, it focuses on the tug-of-war between the Centre and Sindh—under the pressure of Covid-19—over issues of provincial autonomy, especially that of the Eighteenth Amendment and of local government.

Introduction

This chapter provides the context for the study of Sindhi nationalism in Pakistan. It offers an overview of existing research on Sindh across various disciplines of the social sciences. The chapter identifies the key variables of analysis in the book including the policy agenda of the state in Pakistan and of ethnic entrepreneurs in Sindh, such as political parties and rights-based movements. It presents the structure of the book and lays out the key arguments that will be discussed in the following chapters. It also engages with academic debates on the institutional design of the state, especially ethnic federalism.

Sindh Before Partition

This chapter examines the origins of Sindhi nationalism during the colonial period. To understand the construction of modern Sindhi identity, the author focuses on landmark developments of this period, such as the introduction of Sindhi as the language of administration, which precipitated the growth of print capitalism—a crucial factor in the emergence of nationalist consciousness in the province. The chapter also analyzes key British policies such as canal colonization and the settlement of Punjabis in Sindh, which provoked negative sentiments against the outsiders. It discusses the first political movement of Sindh, i.e., the demand for a separate Sindh province, which was realized in 1936, as well as the impact of pirs in the province’s politics and the shifting Hindu-Muslim relations. The chapter concludes by examining party politics inside and outside the electoral arena in the decade prior to partition in Sindh.