On God as an Agent

This chapter contains the central contention of this volume, namely, that Christian theology and philosophy should conceive of God as an agent. It briefly outlines the intellectual and spiritual territory in which the claim “God is an agent” appears, some of which has been discussed in previous volumes: thus the chapter offers a recapitulation. Then it portrays the claim that God is an agent schematically, in dialogue with Thomas Reid. Then it discusses the motivation for thinking about God as an agent that recurringly appears in Christian theology and philosophy. Next, it raises a caution for thinking about God as an agent, and then it concludes by responding to central objections to this view.

Divine Action in the Eucharist

Thomas Aquinas has long been the gold standard for theology of divine action in the Eucharist. Yet his account raises a number of difficulties. His position rests on a literal reading of scripture, a network of concomitant miracles that are dubious, and the danger of multiple incarnations, and a metaphysical apparatus that lacks credibility. This chapter argues that we should look for a better way to think about the Eucharist. First, it engages the proposal of Michael Dummett, a Roman Catholic philosopher, and second, it offers its own alternative sketch of divine action in the Eucharist which avoids the problems associated with Aquinas’s account.

Divine Action in History

This chapter probes the relationship of divine action to historical processes by looking at the creation of the modern state of Israel and its relationship to the Jewish people. The establishment of Israel has been described by many writers as a miracle of God. It argues particularistic claims like these should be taken seriously. It also suggests that these kinds of public claims about divine action are not going away, and we ought to reckon with them; if we do not, it is to our detriment for public understanding. It suggests the crucial link between history and theology is the nature of causation—it draws on Ernst Troeltsch’s work to bring out this point.

Divine Action and the Charge of Sexist Discourse

This chapter responds to a serious objection to traditional canonical Christian theology: that it depicts God in sexist terms. Not only this, but the tradition holds that a male figure is at the heart of the faith itself. The chapter lists several complaints by modern critics of traditional Christian “male-centered” language. Engaging the concerns of feminist philosophers Elizabeth Johnson and Sarah Coakley, the chapter argues that there is no good reason to change the canonical Trinitarian and Christological language. This position will require courage, but it is argued that the consequences for jettisoning the traditional language will be far worse than keeping them.

Particular Providence and Divine Actions

This chapter draws on the logic of personal agency to cast light on one dimension of particular providence, namely, cases where God acts to bring good out of good and to bring good out of evil. It argues that certain special acts of God exhibit a certain purposiveness visible to the outsider as coincidences and interpreted by believers as divine actions. It argues that attention to the details of specific divine actions like the shocking stories in the introduction to the chapter helps us resolve the enigma of particular providence and its relation to human freedom.

Divine Agency, Divine Freedom, and Divine Suffering

This chapter argues that traditional concepts of God as pure act, impassible, atemporal, and simple should be rethought in light of the canonical claims the Christian tradition makes about divine action. First, it examines why we should hold to a strong account of divine agency. On this basis, it argues that we cannot avoid predicating such concepts as choice, mercy, rational deliberation, love, suffering, wrath, and patience to God. The chapter calls this divine “agentism.” Second, it argues that the central claims of agentism are incompatible with the thought of Thomas Aquinas (“Thomism”) and some of its major exponents. Third, it argues why Thomism is unpersuasive. Finally, it indicates some directions for future research in this area.

Divine Action and Divine Identity in Christianity and Islam

The chapter seeks to answer the question about whether the God Christians worship is the same as that of Islam. It argues that Christians and Muslims believe in the same God and under certain agreed descriptions worship the same God. It explores and defends this notion philosophically, in conversation with recent analytic philosophy, linguistic philosophy, and recent studies of the relation of Christianity and Islam. It offers a rejection of the author’s previous view that Christians and Muslims believe in the same God but worship different Gods. It concludes by analyzing the political and theological consequences of this view, and suggests a retrieval of a natural theology at the heart of the American political project to make more room for Muslims in American society.

Divine Action, Grace, and Human Agency

This chapter illumines the old problem of the relation of human freedom to divine grace by looking at it from the perspective of God as an agent. The traditional problem of freedom and grace is this: if we allow room for human action in the economy of salvation, then we are committed to justification by works. But if salvation is all of grace and therefore does not allow for any serious causal role of the human will in salvation, then we are committed to determinism. The chapter throws light on this problem by looking at causation in in different respects, particularly how it bears on divine and human action, drawing on the work of J. R. Lucas, Paul Helm, and St. Augustine.

Salvation, Baptism in the Holy Spirit, and Experience of God

This chapter begins by charting the failure of Herbert Asbury’s conversion, using this as a point of departure to review two classical ways to provide a taxonomy of divine action for the Christian life, especially the experience of the Holy Spirit. The Christian tradition imparts a variety of concepts like sanctification, theosis, holiness, baptism in the Spirit, and union with Christ to speak of the experience of the Christian believer. Furthermore, the tradition speaks of the action of the church and the action of other believers on Christians. By attending to the concepts of divine and human agency, this chapter provides a way forward through this debate.

Divine Action and Skepticism in the Book of Exodus

This chapter provides a reading of the book of Exodus in conversation with modern epistemological skepticism. Exodus speaks often of the knowledge of God. At its beginning, the Israelites are seriously doubtful about the account of God they inherited from their forefathers. At the end, they no longer have doubts and construct a tabernacle to express their devotion and worship to God. The chapter argues that the text provides significant epistemic clues that explain this shift from unbelief to belief. It also argues that much of this explanation has to do with divine action, that is, God’s own action on his people.