Conclusion

This book has demonstrated the insights that can be found in the analysis of British-Chilean relations in the independence period, which in the case of Chile have been mostly studied relating to the second half of the nineteenth century. The fact that British investments and flows of peoples and goods became increasingly important after 1850, has led scholars like John Mayo to maintain that ‘informal imperialism’ is the appropriate term to describe the ‘anatomy’ of such a relationship. However, such a view is restrictive, allowing an examination of the traditional ambits by which informal empire has been regarded as an analytical tool when approaching the relations between Britain and Latin America. This is to say, the economic and diplomatic means that helped to preserve the subordinate condition of the former Spanish colonies to the interests of the British Empire. In recent years, approaches to the problematic nature of informal imperialism have made it clear that these elements are not enough, that they cannot be the only aspects imbricated in this problem. The cultural dimension must also form part of the analysis of a relationship that, at first glance, seemed to be determined by informal imperialism. This is particularly relevant in a period like the independence era, in which the economic and diplomatic means used by Great Britain to exert its dominion were not as evident as in subsequent years. Indeed, as I showed in the ...

Bibles, Schools and Citizens

Many Britons travelled to Chile because were representing the interests of another group of individuals and not only their own personal projects. This was the case of the British Protestant societies that emerged in Britain since late eighteenth century and were sending agents and missionaries to different parts of the world. These societies aimed to civilise the rest of the world and were therefore embarked on what they saw as a global mission. Some of them, like the British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) and the British and Foreign School Society (BFSS), reached South America and Chile when the struggles for the Independence were coming to an end. This chapter analyses the process of interaction and the exchange of ideas and practices between the agents of these societies who travelled to Chile in the 1820s, and the Chileans who were involved in the construction of the new state.

Cultural Encounters Offshore

During the wars for independence Britain maintained a policy of neutrality between Spain and its colonies. As a result, relations between Chile and Britain were largely enacted by ‘non–state’ actors. This chapter delves into the role played by one of these ‘non–state’ actors: British seamen who participated in the newly created Chilean navy from 1817 and their interactions with their Chilean counterparts. The analysis of the inter–personal interactions that took place on board reinforces the argument that Chile’s Independence era cannot be considered a prelude to the neo–imperial relations established in late nineteenth century. British seamen were rarely seen – and did not see themselves – as imperial agents. The navy worked as a ‘contact zone’, in which relationships were troubled. In addition, this brought about significant repercussions for the nation–building process in Chile.

British Merchants, Private Interests and the Fostering of Free Trade in Chile, 1811–1831

The final case study to be discussed is the role of the other British ‘non–state’ actors involved in Chile’s independence–era: merchants. The presence of merchants and traders of different nationalities had been very extensive along the Chilean coasts prior to the crisis of 1808, but their presence was illegal since Spain adopted a trade monopoly policy after the conquest of America. This situation changed after 1811 thanks to the policies adopted by the new Chilean authorities, who gradually ‘legalised’ the status of these ‘smugglers’. As a result, the activities of British merchants in Chile were no longer forbidden and their former status as illegal traders or smugglers shifted to a new one, in which they became legal merchants operating in Chile. British merchants who travelled to Chile were fundamental in fostering and consolidating, although as with the cases studied in chapters two and three, this was done according to local conditions.

Invasions, Negotiations and Conspiracies

This chapter analyses the relations between Great Britain and Chile between 1806 and 1814. In this period, Chile was not yet an independent state, but still a Spanish colony. ‘Chileans’ were still subjects of the king of Spain, and this was the most significant factor that shaped their first attitudes and reactions towards Britain during these years. This period was characterized by quick political and geopolitical developments. The process of the Napoleonic wars in Europe brought about significant changes for the relationship between Chile and Great Britain. If in a first moment Spain and France were allies against Britain, the overthrow of King Ferdinand VII by Napoleon in May 1808 reconfigured relations between Spain and Britain, making the two powers staunch allies against the French threat. All this influenced the way Chileans thought about both Britain’s place in the world and their own identity.

Beyond Diplomacy

Great Britain formally recognised the Independence of Chile in 1831. This was the outcome of a long process of formal negotiations that began as early as 1813, when the first Chilean diplomatic envoys were sent to London to get support from Britain and to open up commercial relations. Such negotiations took place in a context of warfare both in Europe and Spanish America. Chileans did not initially succeed in the negotiations because Britain declared its neutrality in the conflict between Spain and its colonies and did not accept to negotiate with Chilean envoys as representatives of a state that did not exist. This chapter analyses the diplomatic negotiations between British and Chilean state actors about the recognition of Chile’s independence, focusing in the contested images and representations about Chile that circulated in the period and the role played by the United States.

Introduction

In April 2014, during the third year of my doctoral studies, I made a research trip to Edinburgh with my family to review the documents of Thomas Cochrane that are held in the National Archive of Scotland. We had always wanted to visit the city and it seemed like a good opportunity. We also travelled at a particular time, only a few months before the referendum to decide whether Scotland would remain in the United Kingdom. This was really significant. I could witness how a considerable part of Scottish society was calling into question the idea of a British ‘nation’, whose existence I was convinced of after reading Linda Colley’s classic ...