AbstractThermophilic Campylobacter, in particular Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli and C. lari are the main relevant Campylobacter species for human infections. Due to their high capacity of genetic exchange by horizontal gene transfer (HGT), rapid adaptation to changing environmental and host conditions contribute to successful spreading and persistence of these foodborne pathogens. However, extensive HGT can exert dangerous side effects for the bacterium, such as the incorporation of gene fragments leading to disturbed gene functions. Here we discuss mechanisms of HGT, notably natural transformation, conjugation and bacteriophage transduction and limiting regulatory strategies of gene transfer. In particular, we summarize the current knowledge on how the DNA macromolecule is exchanged between single cells. Mechanisms to stimulate and to limit HGT obviously coevolved and maintained an optimal balance. Chromosomal rearrangements and incorporation of harmful mutations are risk factors for survival and can result in drastic loss of fitness. In Campylobacter, the restricted recognition and preferential uptake of free DNA from relatives are mediated by a short methylated DNA pattern and not by a classical DNA uptake sequence as found in other bacteria. A class two CRISPR-Cas system is present but also other DNases and restriction–modification systems appear to be important for Campylobacter genome integrity. Several lytic and integrated bacteriophages have been identified, which contribute to genome diversity. Furthermore, we focus on the impact of gene transfer on the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (resistome) and persistence factors. We discuss remaining open questions in the HGT field, supposed to be answered in the future by current technologies like whole-genome sequencing and single-cell approaches.
Horizontal gene transfer of a unique nif island drives convergent evolution of free-living N2-fixing Bradyrhizobium
