4.7 Preserved Inhibitory Function in Healthy Children During a Stroop Test: an fNIRS Study

Background: In sports psychology research, the Stroop test and its derivations are commonly used to investigate the benefits of exercise on cognitive function. The measures of the Stroop test and the computed interference often have different interclass correlation coefficients (ICC). However, the ICC is never reported in cross-over designs involving multiple variances associated with individual differences.Objective: We investigated the ICC of the Stroop neutral and incongruent tests and interference (neutral test—incongruent test), and reverse Stroop task using the linear mixed model.Methods: Forty-eight young adults participated in a cross-over design experiment composed of 2 factors: exercise mode (walking, resistance exercise, badminton, and seated rest as control) and time (pre- and post-tests). Before and after each intervention, participants completed the Stroop neutral and incongruent, and the reverse-Stroop neutral and incongruent tests. We analyzed for each test performance and interference and calculated ICC using the linear mixed model.Results: The linear mixed model found a significant interaction of exercise mode and time for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop tasks, suggesting that exercise mode influences the effect of acute exercise on inhibitory function. On the other hand, there was no significant effect of exercise mode for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop interference. The results also revealed that calculating both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop interference resulted in smaller ICCs than the ICCs of the neutral and incongruent tests for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop tasks.Conclusion: The Stroop and reverse-Stroop interferences are known as valid measures of the inhibitory function for cross-sectional research design. However, to understand the benefits of acute exercise on inhibitory function comprehensively by cross-over design, comparing the incongruent test with the neutral test also seems superior because these tests have high reliability and statistical power.

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Sustained Effects of Acute Resistance Exercise on Executive Function in Healthy Middle-Aged Adults

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience ◽

10.3389/fnhum.2021.684848 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 15 ◽

Author(s):

Chien-Chih Chou ◽

Ming-Chun Hsueh ◽

Yi-Hsiang Chiu ◽

Wen-Yi Wang ◽

Mei-Yao Huang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Resistance Exercise ◽

Executive Control ◽

Test Performance ◽

Stroop Test ◽

Middle Aged ◽

Post Exercise ◽

Inhibitory Function ◽

Sustained Effects ◽

The Difference ◽

Middle Aged Adults

The present study examined the sustained effects of acute resistance exercise on inhibitory function in healthy middle-aged adults. Seventy healthy middle-aged adults (mean age = 46.98 ± 5.70 years) were randomly assigned to exercise or control groups, and the Stroop test was administered before, immediately after, and 40 min after exercise. The resistance exercise protocol involved two sets of seven exercises performed for a maximum of 10 repetitions, with 60 s between sets and exercises. Acute resistance exercise resulted in higher Stroop test performance under the incongruent (inhibition) and interference conditions immediately post-exercise and 40 min post-exercise. Furthermore, the difference in scores after 40 min was significant. The findings indicate that a moderately intensive acute resistance exercise could facilitate Stroop performance and has a more beneficial effect on sustaining of cognition that involves executive control at least 40 min.

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Comparison of the effects of running and badminton on executive function: a within-subjects design

10.1101/625046 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Shinji Takahashi ◽

Philip M. Grove

Keyword(s):

Stroop Task ◽

Acute Effect ◽

Stroop Test ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Positive Effects ◽

Inhibitory Function ◽

Single Bout ◽

Before And After ◽

Within Subjects ◽

Improved Performance

AbstractMultiple cross-sectional studies have shown that regular complex exercises, which require cognitive demands (e.g., decision making) and various motions, are associated with greater positive effects on executive functions compared to simple exercises. However, the evidence of a single bout of complex exercises is mixed, and investigations on the acute effect of complex exercise using a well-controlled within-subjects research design are few. Therefore, we compared the acute effects of complex exercise on inhibitory functions with those of simple running. Twenty young adults performed three interventions, which were running, badminton, and seated rest as a control condition for 10 min each. During each intervention, oxygen consumption and heart rate were monitored. A Stroop test and a reverse-Stroop test were completed before and after each intervention. The intensities of the badminton and running were equivalent. Badminton significantly improved performance on the Stroop task compared to seated rest; however, running did not enhance performance on the Stroop task relative to seated rest. A single bout of complex exercise elicits a larger benefit to inhibitory function than a single bout of simple exercise. However, the benefit of complex exercise may vary depending on the type of cognitive control.

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The Development of Swallowing Respiratory Coordination

Perspectives on Swallowing and Swallowing Disorders (Dysphagia) ◽

10.1044/sasd18.1.19 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

pp. 19-24

Author(s):

Maggie-Lee Huckabee

Keyword(s):

Cortical Activation ◽

First Year ◽

Healthy Children ◽

Nasal Airflow ◽

Single Session ◽

Primary Finding ◽

Patterns Of Behavior ◽

Cortical Modulation ◽

First Year Of Life ◽

Swallowing Apnea

Abstract Research exists that evaluates the mechanics of swallowing respiratory coordination in healthy children and adults as well and individuals with swallowing impairment. The research program summarized in this article represents a systematic examination of swallowing respiratory coordination across the lifespan as a means of behaviorally investigating mechanisms of cortical modulation. Using time-locked recordings of submental surface electromyography, nasal airflow, and thyroid acoustics, three conditions of swallowing were evaluated in 20 adults in a single session and 10 infants in 10 sessions across the first year of life. The three swallowing conditions were selected to represent a continuum of volitional through nonvolitional swallowing control on the basis of a decreasing level of cortical activation. Our primary finding is that, across the lifespan, brainstem control strongly dictates the duration of swallowing apnea and is heavily involved in organizing the integration of swallowing and respiration, even in very early infancy. However, there is evidence that cortical modulation increases across the first 12 months of life to approximate more adult-like patterns of behavior. This modulation influences primarily conditions of volitional swallowing; sleep and naïve swallows appear to not be easily adapted by cortical regulation. Thus, it is attention, not arousal that engages cortical mechanisms.

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