Longer-Term Impacts of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Taxes on Fast-Food Beverage Prices: Evidence from Oakland, California, Two-Years Post-Tax

Abstract Objective: To evaluate the effect of a sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) tax implemented in Oakland, California, in July 2017, on prices of beverages sold in fast-food restaurants 2-years post-tax. Design: Using a difference-in-differences (DID) approach, we analyzed beverage price data collected from fast-food restaurants 1-month pre-tax and 2-years post-tax in Oakland (intervention site) and Sacramento, California (comparison site). Separate linear regression models were used to estimate the impact of the tax on prices of bottled regular soda, bottled diet soda, bottled unsweetened beverages, and fountain drinks. Setting: Oakland and Sacramento, California, United States. Participants: Chain and non-chain fast-food restaurants (n 85). Results: DID estimates indicate that in fast-food restaurants, on average, the price of bottled regular soda increased by 1.44 cents/oz (95% CI 0.50, 2.73) (tax pass-through rate of 144%) and the price of bottled diet soda increased by 1.17 cents/oz (95% CI 0.07, 2.13). No statistically significant differences were found between bottled regular and diet soda price increases. Price effects for unsweetened beverages and fountain drinks were not statistically significant. Further, the estimated price change for fountain drinks was nearly zero. Conclusions: Findings suggest that the effectiveness of SSB taxes in discouraging SSB consumption may be limited in fast-food restaurants in Oakland, California because there were similar price increases in taxed and untaxed bottled soda and no changes in fountain drink prices.

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The impact of the Oakland sugar-sweetened beverage tax on bottled soda and fountain drink prices in fast-food restaurants

Preventive Medicine Reports ◽

10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.101034 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 ◽

pp. 101034

Author(s):

Samantha Marinello ◽

Andrea A. Pipito ◽

Julien Leider ◽

Oksana Pugach ◽

Lisa M. Powell

Keyword(s):

Fast Food ◽

Sugar Sweetened Beverage ◽

Sweetened Beverage ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

The Impact

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Associations between home and school neighbourhood food environments and adolescents’ fast-food and sugar-sweetened beverage intakes: findings from the Olympic Regeneration in East London (ORiEL) Study

Public Health Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s1368980018001477 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 21 (15) ◽

pp. 2842-2851 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Martine Shareck ◽

Daniel Lewis ◽

Neil R Smith ◽

Christelle Clary ◽

Steven Cummins

Keyword(s):

Risk Ratio ◽

Food Environment ◽

Fast Food ◽

Home School ◽

Sugar Sweetened Beverage ◽

Sweetened Beverage ◽

Convenience Stores ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

Home And School ◽

Relative Exposure

AbstractObjectiveTo examine associations between availability of fast-food restaurants and convenience stores in the home and school neighbourhoods, considered separately and together, and adolescents’ fast-food and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intakes.DesignCross-sectional observational study.SettingEast London, UK.SubjectsAdolescents (n3089; aged 13–15 years) from the Olympic Regeneration in East London (ORiEL) Study self-reported their weekly frequency of fast-food and SSB consumption. We used food business addresses collected from local authority registers to derive absolute (counts) and relative (proportions) exposure measures to fast-food restaurants and convenience stores within 800 m from home, school, and home and school combined. Associations between absolute and relative measures of the food environment and fast-food and SSB intakes were assessed using Poisson regression models with robust standard errors.ResultsAbsolute exposure to fast-food restaurants or convenience stores in the home, school, or combined home and school neighbourhoods was not associated with any of the outcomes. High SSB intake was associated with relative exposure to convenience stores in the residential neighbourhood (risk ratio=1·45; 95 % CI 1·08, 1·96) and in the home and school neighbourhoods combined (risk ratio=1·69; 95 % CI 1·11, 2·57).ConclusionsWe found no evidence of an association between absolute exposure to fast-food restaurants and convenience stores around home and school and adolescents’ fast-food and SSB intakes. Relative exposure, which measures the local diversity of the neighbourhood food environment, was positively associated with SSB intake. Relative measures of the food environment may better capture the environmental risks for poor diet than absolute measures.

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Taming the Obesity Beast: Children, Marketing, and Public Policy Considerations

Journal of Public Policy & Marketing ◽

10.1509/jppm.26.2.236 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 26 (2) ◽

pp. 236-242 ◽

Cited By ~ 32

Author(s):

Kathleen Seiders ◽

Ross D. Petty

Keyword(s):

Fast Food ◽

Special Section ◽

Marketing Research ◽

Policy Implications ◽

Policy Interventions ◽

Longitudinal Tracking ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

Role Of Parents ◽

Packaged Food ◽

The Impact

This essay explores the policy implications of the findings in this special section for potential remedies and opportunities for further research in the critical area of obesity. Children are an important focus here both because of the dramatic increase in childhood obesity in recent decades and because they lack the cognitive development and social experience to process marketing communications with the sophistication of adults. In addition, children's food purchase decisions are substantially influenced by their parents. Although packaged food marketers are setting their own voluntary restrictions on products to be marketed during entertainment content targeted at children, the impact of such restrictions is limited because children are substantial viewers of general entertainment content. This essay suggests that more prominent nutrition disclosure oriented toward obesity concerns for both packaged foods and fast-food restaurants should be more fully considered. It further suggests that increased marketing research is needed to better understand children as consumers, the role of parents as gatekeepers, and the differences between ethnic population segments. Marketing research also can contribute to the assessment of the effectiveness of different regulatory approaches adopted by various countries and the viability of mass educational approaches versus individual encouragement by parents, doctors, and others. The authors note that because obesity is a long-term health problem, a longitudinal tracking study would be useful in studying both health effects over time and the effectiveness of various policy interventions.

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Linking a sugar-sweetened beverage tax with fruit and vegetable subsidies: A simulation analysis of the impact on the poor

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition ◽

10.1093/ajcn/nqab330 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Pourya Valizadeh ◽

Barry M Popkin ◽

Shu Wen Ng

Keyword(s):

Low Income ◽

Simulation Analysis ◽

Fruit And Vegetable ◽

Sugar Sweetened Beverage ◽

Subsidy Rate ◽

Sweetened Beverage ◽

Financial Gain ◽

Households With Children ◽

The Impact ◽

Low Income Households

Abstract Background US individuals, particularly from low-income subpopulations, have very poor diet quality. Policies encouraging shifts from consuming unhealthy food towards healthy food consumption are needed. Objectives We simulate the differential impacts of a national sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) tax and its combination with fruit and vegetable (FV) subsidies targeted to low-income households, on SSB and FV purchases of lower and higher SSB purchasers. Design We considered a one-cent-per-ounce SSB tax and two FV subsidy rates of 30% and 50% and used longitudinal grocery purchase data for 79,044 urban/semiurban US households from 2010-2014 Nielsen Homescan. We used demand elasticities for lower and higher SSB purchasers, estimated via longitudinal quantile regression, to simulate policies’ differential effects. Results Higher-SSB purchasing households made larger reductions (per adult equivalent) in SSB purchases than lower SSB purchasers due to the tax (e.g., 4.4 oz/day at SSB purchase percentile 90 vs. 0.5 oz/day at percentile 25; p < 0.05). Our analyses by household income indicated low-income households would make larger reductions than higher-income households at all SSB purchase levels. Targeted FV subsidies induced similar, but nutritionally insignificant, increases in FV purchases of low-income households regardless of their SSB purchase levels. Subsidies, however, were effective in mitigating the tax burdens. All low-income households experienced a net financial gain when the tax was combined with a 50% FV subsidy, but net gains were smaller among higher SSB purchasers. Further, low-income households with children gained smaller net financial benefits than households without children and incurred net financial losses under a 30% subsidy rate. Conclusions SSB taxes can effectively reduce SSB consumption. FV subsidies would increase FV purchases, but nutritionally meaningful increases are limited due to low purchase levels pre-policy. Expanding taxes beyond SSBs, larger FV subsidies, or subsidies beyond FVs, particularly for low-income households with children, may be more effective.

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Investigating adolescents’ sweetened beverage consumption and Western fast food restaurant visits in China, 2006–2011

International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health ◽

10.1515/ijamh-2017-0209 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 0 (0) ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Yen-Han Lee ◽

Timothy C. Chiang ◽

Ching-Ti Liu ◽

Yen-Chang Chang

Keyword(s):

Fast Food ◽

Central Government ◽

Trend Test ◽

Fast Food Restaurant ◽

Contemporary China ◽

Beverage Consumption ◽

Sweetened Beverage ◽

Sweetened Beverages ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

Generalized Poisson Regression

Abstract Background China has undergone rapid Westernization and established dramatic social reforms since the early 21st century. However, health issues led to challenges in the lives of the Chinese residents. Western fast food and sweetened beverages, two food options associated with chronic diseases and obesity, have played key roles to alter adolescents’ dietary patterns. This study aims to examine the association between adolescents’ visits to Western fast food restaurants and sweetened beverage consumption. Methods Applying three waves of the China Health and Nutrition Study (CHNS) between 2006 and 2011 (n = 1063), we used generalized Poisson regression (GPR) to investigate the association between adolescents’ Western fast food restaurant visits and sweetened beverage consumption, as the popularity of fast food and sweetened beverages has skyrocketed among adolescents in contemporary China. A linear-by-linear association test was used as a trend test to study general patterns between sweetened beverage consumption and Western fast food restaurant visits. We adjusted all models with sweetened beverage consumption frequency, four food preferences (fast food, salty snacks, fruits and vegetables), school status, gross household income, provinces, rural/urban regions, age and gender. Results From the results of the trend test, frequent sweetened beverage consumption was highly associated with more Western fast food restaurant visits among Chinese adolescents in the three waves (p < 0.001). Furthermore, we observed that adolescents, who had less than monthly sweetened beverage consumption or did not drink them at all, had much less likelihood of visiting Western fast food restaurants (p < 0.05), compared with those daily consumers. Conclusion Adolescents’ sweetened beverage consumption was highly associated with Western fast food restaurant visits in contemporary China. Further actions are needed from the Chinese central government to create a healthier dietary environment for adolescents.

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Understanding customer satisfaction in the UK quick service restaurant industry

British Food Journal ◽

10.1108/bfj-08-2017-0449 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 120 (6) ◽

pp. 1207-1222 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

Quang Nguyen ◽

Tahir M. Nisar ◽

Dan Knox ◽

Guru Prakash Prabhakar

Keyword(s):

Customer Satisfaction ◽

Service Quality ◽

Fast Food ◽

Content Type ◽

Five Dimensions ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

Food Market ◽

The Uk ◽

Quick Service ◽

The Impact

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the five dimensions of service quality on customer satisfaction in the UK fast food market and to indicate which factors among the five dimensions have a main role in driving overall customer satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach Primary data in the form of 147 questionnaire responses were been collected from a variety of quick service fast food restaurants in the UK. Likert seven-point rating scales were used to structure the questionnaire. Data were collected from the customers at two KFC restaurants, two McDonald’s restaurants, and one Burger King Restaurant. Findings The results of the analysis indicate that tangibles, responsiveness and assurance play the most important role in driving customer satisfaction in the UK fast food industry, followed by reliability and empathy. Results of correlation and regression analysis show that physical attributes (tangible) of service quality are key to customer satisfaction. In a nutshell, the tangibles variable is the most important factor driving customer satisfaction in the context of the UK fast food market. Originality/value This research incorporates unique and original insights in relation to the British fast food restaurants market and the results constitute novel findings pertaining to the importance of physical facilities and attributes. This account of the relative importance of service quality dimensions in fast food restaurants in the UK adds value to the field. The findings of this research have contributed to a better understanding of the main factors that influence service quality and customer satisfaction and have implications from a managerial point of view in the highly competitive UK fast food and wider foodservice industry.

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The measurement of consumer satisfaction with selected elements of the total retail experience: An exploratory study of fast food and supermarket retailers

South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences ◽

10.4102/sajems.v4i1.2632 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 4 (1) ◽

pp. 99-117

Author(s):

N. S. Terblanche ◽

C. Boshoff

Keyword(s):

Customer Satisfaction ◽

South African ◽

Fast Food ◽

Consumer Satisfaction ◽

Shopping Experience ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

The Individual ◽

Retail Shopping ◽

The Impact ◽

The Relationship

Although attempts have been made to identify some of the dimensions of retail shopping experience, these have been largely fragmented and uncoordinated. No attempt has yet been made to combine the efforts of many retailing students into a comprehensive model that accurately describes the total retailing experience. Also, very little is known about the relationship between the individual dimensions of retail shopping and customer satisfaction. This study attempts to reduce this gap in South African retailing literature by, first modelling the total retailing experience and, then, assessing the influence of selected individual retailing dimensions on customer satisfaction. It also investigates whether the impact of these dimensions of the retailing experience differs between fast food restaurants and supermarket retailers. The empirical results suggest a fairly consistent pattern of relationships between fast food restaurants and supermarkets.

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The impact of Wi-Fi service on millennial diners

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology ◽

10.1108/jhtt-11-2017-0133 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 383-400 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Jiyeon Jeon ◽

Myongjee Yoo ◽

Natasa Christodoulidou

Keyword(s):

Fast Food ◽

Value Added ◽

Restaurant Industry ◽

Content Type ◽

Casual Dining ◽

A Value ◽

Fast Food Restaurants ◽

Customer's Loyalty ◽

The Impact ◽

Coffee Shops

Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of Wi-Fi service on the millennial generation’s loyalty to restaurants. Additionally, this study examines the impact of Wi-Fi service on three different types of restaurants (coffee shops, fast-food restaurants and casual dining restaurants). Furthermore, this study examines the similarities and differences that exist cross-culturally between Americans and Koreans. Design/methodology/approach A total number of 480 questionnaires were collected to empirically test the study model. A factor analysis that used a principal components analysis with varimax rotation was performed to condense the loyalty items into a few underlying constructs, and the Cronbach’s alpha was checked to test for reliability. A multiple regression analysis and t-test were performed to test the study hypotheses. Findings The results show that Wi-Fi service has a significant impact on millennials’ loyalty behavior on all three types of restaurants in this study. However, the differences between Americans and Koreans on how they perceive the Wi-Fi services turned out to be significant only for coffee shops. Research limitations/implications The authors used a non-probability convenience sampling method for data collection. The findings cannot be generalized to other types of restaurants, such as fine dining and luxury restaurants. Although the results indicate a positive relation between Wi-Fi usage and a customer’s loyalty, loyalty is a multifaceted concept where a variety of factors, such as frequency or convenience can have an impact. Practical implications The findings should encourage marketers in the restaurant industry to use Wi-Fi as a value-added service for their customers. Originality/value There are limited studies on how significant Wi-Fi service is for the hospitality industry, and in particular, for restaurants. This study builds on the scholarship of Cobanoglu et al. (2012) on the value of the customer loyalty by providing new insights into customers’ views on Wi-Fi service in the restaurant industry.

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Higher Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Retail Prices After Excise Taxes in Oakland and San Francisco

American Journal of Public Health ◽

10.2105/ajph.2020.305602 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 110 (7) ◽

pp. 1017-1023 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Jennifer Falbe ◽

Matthew M. Lee ◽

Scott Kaplan ◽

Nadia A. Rojas ◽

Alberto M. Ortega Hinojosa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

San Francisco ◽

Fixed Effects ◽

Weighted Average ◽

High Dimensional ◽

Difference In Differences ◽

Sugar Sweetened Beverage ◽

Excise Taxes ◽

Sweetened Beverage ◽

Diet Soda ◽

Retail Prices

Objectives. To examine how much sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) excise taxes increased SSB retail prices in Oakland and San Francisco, California. Methods. We collected pretax (April–May 2017) and posttax (April–May 2018) retail prices of SSBs and non-SSBs from 155 stores in Oakland, San Francisco, and comparison cities. We analyzed data using difference-in-differences high-dimensional fixed-effects regressions, weighted by regional beverage sales. Results. Across all beverage sizes, the weighted average price of SSBs increased by 0.92 cents per ounce (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.28, 1.56) in Oakland and 1.00 cents per ounce (95% CI = 0.35, 1.65) in San Francisco, compared with prices in untaxed cities. The tax did not significantly alter prices of water, 100% juice, or milk of any size examined. Diet soda only, among non-SSBs, exhibited a higher price increase for some sizes in taxed cities. Conclusions. Within 4 to 10 months of implementation, Oakland’s and San Francisco’s SSB excise taxes significantly increased SSB retail prices by approximately the amount of the taxes, a key mechanism for reducing consumption.

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