From Genes to Behavior Through Sex Hormones and Socialization: The Example of Gender Development

Irving Gottesman is known primarily for his work in psychopathology, but he also had a long-standing interest in understanding psychological development generally (typical and atypical). Through his mentorship, he also influenced work in gender development. Characteristics related to sex and gender are ideally suited to study the interplay of genes and environment across development. We discuss how gender development is influenced by gonadal hormones present during early life, but not in a simple way. We describe some of the challenges and opportunities to extend our understanding of the complexity of gender development. Throughout, we consider the kinds of questions Gottesman would likely have asked and emphasize his influence on our work.

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Gender in Endocrine Diseases: Role of Sex Gonadal Hormones

International Journal of Endocrinology ◽

10.1155/2018/4847376 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 2018 ◽

pp. 1-11 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

R. Lauretta ◽

M. Sansone ◽

A. Sansone ◽

F. Romanelli ◽

M. Appetecchia

Keyword(s):

Human Physiology ◽

Sex Hormones ◽

Medical Specialty ◽

Gonadal Hormones ◽

Response To Therapy ◽

Endocrine Diseases ◽

Biological Sex ◽

New Frontier ◽

And Gender ◽

The Individual

Gender- and sex- related differences represent a new frontier towards patient-tailored medicine, taking into account that theoretically every medical specialty can be influenced by both of them. Sex hormones define the differences between males and females, and the different endocrine environment promoted by estrogens, progesterone, testosterone, and their precursors might influence both human physiology and pathophysiology. With the term Gender we refer, instead, to behaviors, roles, expectations, and activities carried out by the individual in society. In other words, “gender” refers to a sociocultural sphere of the individual, whereas “sex” only defines the biological sex. In the last decade, increasing attention has been paid to understand the influence that gender can have on both the human physiology and pathogenesis of diseases. Even the clinical response to therapy may be influenced by sex hormones and gender, but further research is needed to investigate and clarify how they can affect the human pathophysiology. The path to a tailored medicine in which every patient is able to receive early diagnosis, risk assessments, and optimal treatments cannot exclude the importance of gender. In this review, we have focused our attention on the involvement of sex hormones and gender on different endocrine diseases.

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Psychosocial Models of Gender Development

International Journal of Indian Psychology ◽

10.25215/0204.058 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 2 (4) ◽

Author(s):

Firdos Jehan ◽

Mustafa Nadeem Kirmani

Keyword(s):

Gender Development ◽

Clinical Implications ◽

Sex And Gender ◽

Biological Models ◽

Biological Factors ◽

Social Scientists ◽

Men And Women ◽

Psychological Differences ◽

And Gender ◽

Psychosocial Models

The behavioral and psychological differences between women and men have puzzled social scientists for many years. Differences between men and women are often overestimated and their behavioral, cognitive and emotional differences are often attributed to innate biological factors. Stereotyped beliefs about men and women often have serious social and clinical implications. Research in gender psychology has shown that men and women are more similar than different. Besides biological models, psychologists have given many models which helps describe and explain the various psychosocial theories of gender development. This paper will attempt to distinguish between two often confusing terms sex and gender and highlights various psychosocial models of gender development leading to possible gender differences in terms of cognitions, emotions and behaviors.

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Sex and gender in asthma

European Respiratory Review ◽

10.1183/16000617.0067-2021 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 30 (162) ◽

pp. 210067

Author(s):

Nowrin U. Chowdhury ◽

Vamsi P. Guntur ◽

Dawn C. Newcomb ◽

Michael E. Wechsler

Keyword(s):

Sex Differences ◽

Environmental Factors ◽

Sex Hormones ◽

Therapeutic Response ◽

Clinical Manifestations ◽

Sex And Gender ◽

Asthma Incidence ◽

And Gender ◽

Incidence Prevalence

Asthma is a heterogenous disease, and its prevalence and severity are different in males versus females through various ages. As children, boys have an increased prevalence of asthma. As adults, women have an increased prevalence and severity of asthma. Sex hormones, genetic and epigenetic variations, social and environmental factors, and responses to asthma therapeutics are important factors in the sex differences observed in asthma incidence, prevalence and severity. For women, fluctuations in sex hormone levels during puberty, the menstrual cycle and pregnancy are associated with asthma pathogenesis. Further, sex differences in gene expression and epigenetic modifications and responses to environmental factors, including SARS-CoV-2 infections, are associated with differences in asthma incidence, prevalence and symptoms. We review the role of sex hormones, genetics and epigenetics, and their interactions with the environment in the clinical manifestations and therapeutic response of asthma.

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Concept of Sex and Gender Development of the Person`s Individuality in the Ontogenesis Process

European Journal of Psychological Studies ◽

10.13187/ejps.2015.5.23 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

pp. 23-30

Author(s):

Lubov V. Mischenko ◽

Keyword(s):

Gender Development ◽

Sex And Gender ◽

And Gender

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Sexual Dimorphism in Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics

Current Drug Metabolism ◽

10.2174/1389200220666191021094906 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 20 (14) ◽

pp. 1154-1166 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Askhi M. Valodara ◽

Kaid Johar SR

Keyword(s):

Drug Metabolism ◽

Sex Hormones ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Gene Expression Regulation ◽

Sex And Gender ◽

Related Condition ◽

Drug Molecules ◽

Gender Based ◽

And Gender ◽

Therapeutic Doses

Background: Sex and gender-based differences are observed well beyond the sex organs and affect several physiological and biochemical processes involved in the metabolism of drug molecules. It is essential to understand not only the sex and gender-based differences in the metabolism of the drug but also the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of drug metabolism for avoiding sex-related adverse effects of drugs in the human. Method: The articles on the sex and gender-based differences in the metabolism of drug molecules were retrieved from the Pub Med database. The articles were classified into the metabolism of the drug molecule, gene expression regulation of drug-metabolizing enzymes, the effect of sex hormones on the metabolism of drug, expression of drugmetabolizing enzymes, etc. Result: Several drug molecules are known, which are metabolized differently in males and females. These differences in metabolism may be due to the genomic and non-genomic action of sex hormones. Several other drug molecules still require further evaluation at the molecular level regarding the sex and gender-based differences in their metabolism. Attention is also required at the effect of signaling cascades associated with the metabolism of drug molecules. Conclusion: Sex and gender-based differences in the metabolism of drugs exist at various levels and it may be due to the genomic and non-genomic action of sex hormones. Detailed understanding of the effect of sex and related condition on the metabolism of drug molecules will help clinicians to determine the effective therapeutic doses of drugs dependingon the condition of patient and disease.

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