Cumulative Causation Unbounded: Network Expansion in Rural and Urban Migration Centers

The New Zealand Maori represent an important case study in the processes of urbanization and acculturation of an indigenous people. Whereas prior to World War II very few Maoris lived in cities, despite the existence of urban areas since the mid-nineteenth century, the postwar period has witnessed the most rapid urbanization of an indigenous people. By 1966, over one-half of the Maori population resided in cities and urban boroughs. The reasons for the occurrence of this phenomenon are discussed in terms of four factors: (1) changes in the attitudes of the European population; (2) changes in governmental policies concerning the social and economic development of the Maori population; (3) differences between the economic positions of rural and urban Maoris; and (4) the social changes effected by the military and logistic necessities of World War II. One of the most important features of Maori urbanization is that it is occurring without involving extensive loss or destruction of traditional Maori culture. It seems that the rapidity with which urbanization is occurring is at least partly responsible for the maintenance of traditional culture in the urban setting.

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The Distribution of Household Income in China: Inequality, Poverty and Policies

The China Quarterly ◽

10.1017/s0305741014000290 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 217 ◽

pp. 1-41 ◽

Cited By ~ 78

Author(s):

Shi Li ◽

Terry Sicular

Keyword(s):

Development Strategy ◽

Poverty Reduction ◽

Rural Poverty ◽

International Standards ◽

Living Standard ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Urban Inequality ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

Rural Urban Migration ◽

The Individual

AbstractThis article examines recent trends in inequality and poverty and the effects of distributional policies in China. After a discussion of data and measurement issues, we present evidence on national, as well as rural and urban, inequality and poverty. We critically examine a selection of policies pursued during the Hu–Wen decade that had explicit distributional objectives: the individual income tax, the elimination of agricultural taxes and fees, minimum wage policies, the relaxation of restrictions on rural–urban migration, the minimum living standard guarantee programme, the “open up the west” development strategy, and the development-oriented rural poverty reduction programme. Despite these policies, income inequality in China increased substantially from the mid-1990s through to 2008. Although inequality stabilized after 2008, the level of inequality remained moderately high by international standards. The ongoing urban–rural income gap and rapid growth in income from private assets and wealth have contributed to these trends in inequality. Policies relaxing restrictions on rural–urban migration have moderated inequality. Our review of selected distributional policies suggests that not all policy measures have been equally effective in ameliorating inequality and poverty.

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Rural and Urban Childhood Environment Effects on Episodic Memory

European Psychiatry ◽

10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.01.1025 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 41 (S1) ◽

pp. S630-S630

Author(s):

X. Zhang ◽

H. Yan ◽

S. Shah ◽

G. Yang ◽

X. Zhao ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Episodic Memory ◽

Brain Regions ◽

Individual Risk ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Aversive Stimuli ◽

Rural Environments ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

Childhood Environment ◽

Competing Interest ◽

Underlying Mechanisms

IntroductionChildhoods in urban or rural environments may differentially affect risk for neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, we leveraged on dramatic urbanization and rural-urban migration since the 1980s in China to explore the hypothesis that rural or urban childhoods may differentially influence memory processing and neural responses to neutral and aversive stimuli.ObjectivesExplore the underlying mechanisms of childhood environment effect on brain function and neuropsychiatric risk.MethodsWe examined 420 adult subjects with similar current socioeconomic status and living in Beijing, China, but with differing rural (n = 227) or urban (n = 193) childhoods. In an episodic memory paradigm scanned in a 3 T GE MRI, subjects viewed blocks of neutral or aversive pictures in the encoding and retrieval sessions.ResultsEpisodic memory accuracy for neutral stimuli was less than for aversive stimuli (P < 0.001). However, subjects with rural childhoods apparently performed less accurately for memory of aversive but not neutral stimuli (P < 0.01). In subjects with rural childhoods, there was relatively increased engagement of bilateral striatum at encoding, increased engagement of bilateral hippocampus at retrieval of neutral and aversive stimuli, and increased engagement of amygdala at aversive retrieval (P < 0.05 FDR corrected, cluster size > 50).ConclusionsRural or urban childhoods appear associated with physiological and behavioural differences, particularly in the neural processing of aversive episodic memory at medial temporal and striatal brain regions. It remains to be explored the extent to which these effects relate to individual risk for neuropsychiatric or stress-related disorders.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

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MIGRATION, TRANSLOCAL NETWORKS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRATIFICATION IN NAMIBIA

Africa ◽

10.1017/s0001972011000477 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 81 (4) ◽

pp. 606-627 ◽

Cited By ~ 22

Author(s):

Clemens Greiner

Keyword(s):

Rural Areas ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Urban Networks ◽

Rural And Urban Areas ◽

Economic Stratification ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

Sub Saharan ◽

Price Differences

ABSTRACTRural–urban migration and networks are fundamental for many livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa. Remittances in cash and kind provide additional income, enhance food security and offer access to viable resources in both rural and urban areas. Migration allows the involved households to benefit from price differences between rural and urban areas. In this contribution, I demonstrate that rural–urban networks not only contribute to poverty alleviation and security, but also further socio-economic stratification. This aspect has been ignored or neglected by most scholars and development planners. Using ethnographic data from Namibia, I have adopted a translocal perspective on migration and stratification, focusing on the resulting impact in rural areas where modern urban forms of stratification, induced by education and income from wage labour, are on the increase.

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Some Aspects of Maori Urban Migration: a Psychological Study

10.26686/wgtn.16945984 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

◽

Frank Henry Walkey

Keyword(s):

East Coast ◽

Structured Interview ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Psychological Study ◽

Specific Effects ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

Interpersonal Adjustment ◽

Group A ◽

School Records ◽

European Group

<p>Following a discussion of some of the implications of urban migration and culture change, predictions were made about the comparative levels of the adjustment of Maori and European, urban and rural, migrant and non-migrant fourteen year old boys. Data for the study were gathered from 306 subjects in a survey of the Wellington and East Coast areas of New Zealand. Four objective measures were developed for the survey and these, together with a structured interview and data from school records were used to assess interpersonal adjustment, competence, and intrapersonal adjustment. Some additional measures related to Maoriness, migration contact and orientation, and educational attitudes. It was observed during detailed analysis of the data, that contact with migrants and an orientation towards migration are significantly more frequently reported by Maori and rural than by European and urban groups, that there were no significant differences in the adjustment of rural and urban samples (though it was noted that on every measure the scores favoured the urban Maori over the rural Maori group), and that on all the measures of adjustment the European group scored higher than the Maori group. A factor analysis provided some insights into the source and significance of "Maoriness" , and aided the interpretation of scores obtained by the Maori sample on a number of variables. Three major conclusions were drawn from the study. First that although differences between the separate groups were often small, there is a significant trend for urban Europeans to show the best adjustment, followed in order by the rural Europeans, urban Maoris and rural Maoris. Second, that the rural Maori group as potential migrants, obtained significantly lower scores than did the potential recipients, the urban European group, on all the measures of adjustment. Finally that rural-urban and inter-city migration appear to have no effect on the adjustment levels at fourteen years of age, of either Maori or European boys, a finding which raises questions about the specific effects of migration on the adjustment of individuals.</p>

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URAL EMPLOYMENTS IN THE MEKONG DELTA AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH URBAN AREAS IN THE SHIFT FROM RICE CULTIVATION TO SHRIMP FARMING

Science and Technology Development Journal ◽

10.32508/stdj.v14i3.1997 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 14 (3) ◽

pp. 55-64

Author(s):

Lan Thi Phuong Ngo

Keyword(s):

Labor Migration ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Rapid Development ◽

Mekong Delta ◽

Shrimp Farming ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Rural And Urban Areas ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

Close Relationship ◽

Rural Urban Migration

By analyzing dimensions of labor migration in the delta’s rice-to-shrimp communities, this paper suggests that in the present context, the relationship between rural and urban areas cannot be separately analyzed. In this paper, this close relationship is manifested in two aspects of rural employments and rural-urban migration. Those factors of excess labor, limited land, lack of employment, and uncertain conditions in agriculture production are important movitations of labor migration in the delta. Our findings are that having close proximity to industrial and urban areas remains an important drive of rural-urban migration. However, the rapid development of transportation and information which more and more connects rural and urban areas effectively has reduced geographical distance. Consequently, the organic relations between rural and industrial and urban areas have accelerated rural-urban migration. Moreover, rural-migration is also an indicator of unsustainability in agricultural production of the Mekong Delta.

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Has Rural-Urban Migration Promoted the Health of Chinese Migrant Workers?

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17041218 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (4) ◽

pp. 1218 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Cuihong Long ◽

Jiajun Han ◽

Yong Liu

Keyword(s):

Migrant Workers ◽

Empirical Test ◽

Urban China ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Salmon Bias ◽

Agricultural Employment ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

And Migration ◽

Chinese Migrant Workers ◽

The Relationship

The relationship between health and migration has always been an important theme in immigration research. This research develops a new approach to test the healthy migrant hypothesis and the salmon bias hypothesis in China by examining an interaction term combining agricultural hukou and migrant status, non-agricultural employment history, and subsequent area of residence. Based on two Chinese micro-databases, CGSS 2015 and Harmonized CHARLS, we conducted an empirical test on the relationship between migration and health. Our empirical evidence suggests that the initial health advantage among Chinese rural migrant workers was largely due to self-selection rather than migration effects. After controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, this advantage disappeared. After their health deteriorated, migrant workers returned to their original location. This could exacerbate the contradiction between the allocation of medical resources and the demand in rural and urban China, further intensifying the already widening health status gap between rural and urban residents.

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Human Capital and Urbanization in India

Cities of Dragons and Elephants ◽

10.1093/oso/9780198829225.003.0016 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 514-546

Author(s):

Sandip Sarkar

Keyword(s):

Human Capital ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Urban Areas ◽

National Income ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Rural And Urban Areas ◽

Average Return ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

Rural Urban Migration ◽

Active Policy

This chapter analyses the human capital base of population, workers, and migrants and compares the human capital base of the population and workers in rural and urban areas. The nature and extent of the private sector’s role in human capital formation are also looked at. This chapter finds that earnings of workers increase substantially at each successive level of education and returns are far higher at the graduate-and-above level. The contribution of rural–urban migration in increasing the urban population has been around one-fifth. In that sense, urban growth has been exclusionary. It observes that urban areas are considerably better endowed with the quality of human capital and the average returns to education are higher in urban areas compared with rural areas, and rural–urban gaps in average return to education are increasing over time. It calls for active policy to promote rural–urban migration that will boost urban as well as national income. In this regard it argues for an active policy of promoting the labour-intensive manufacturing sector which is likely to promote more migration and reduce the selectivity bias in rural–urban migration.

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