Effects of Pre- and Post-Exercise Cold-Water Immersion Therapy on Passive Muscle Stiffness

Abstract Background Cold-water immersion (CWI) has become a popular preventive, regenerative and performance-enhancing intervention in various sports. However, its effects on soft tissue, including changes of intramuscular stiffness, are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of CWI on muscle stiffness. Patients/Material and Methods Thirty healthy participants were included and divided into the three following groups (n = 10): 1) post-ESU group: exercise and CWI (post-exercise set-up); 2) control group: exercise without CWI (control condition); 3) pre-ESU group: CWI alone (pre-exercise set-up). Acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI) elastography was conducted to assess tissue stiffness (shear wave velocity, SWV). Values obtained at resting conditions (baseline, t0) were compared to values post-exercise (t1, for post-ESU group and control group), post-CWI (t2, for post-ESU group and pre-ESU group; rest for control group) and to 60-min follow-up time (t3, for all groups). Data were assessed in superficial and deep muscle tissue (rectus femoris muscle, RF; vastus intermedius muscle, VI). Results For the post-ESU group (CWI post-exercise), there was no significant difference between the time points of measurements: exercise (t1: RF: 1.63 m/s; VI: 1.54 m/s), CWI (t2: RF: 1.63 m/s; VI: 1.53 m/s) and at 60-min follow-up (t3: RF: 1.72 m/s; VI: 1.61 m/s). In the control group, a significant decrease of SWV was found between baseline conditions at t0 and post-exercise (t1) at VI (VI: 1.37 m/s; p = 0.004; RF: 1.59 m/s; p = 0.084). For t2 and t3, no further significant changes were detected. Regarding the pre-exercise set-up (pre-ESU group), a significant decrease in SWV from baseline to t2 in VI (1.60 m/s to 1.49 m/s; VI: p = 0.027) was found. Conclusion This study shows varying influences of CWI on muscle stiffness. Overall, we did not detect any significant effects of CWI on muscle stiffness post-exercise. Muscle stiffness-related effects of CWI differ in the context of a pre- or post-exercise condition and have to be considered in the implementation of CWI to ensure its potential preventive and regenerative benefits.

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Effects of Pre- and Post-Exercise Cold-Water Immersion Therapy on Passive Muscle Stiffness

Sportverletzung · Sportschaden ◽

10.1055/a-1186-7484 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Moritz Hüttel ◽

Tobias Golditz ◽

Isabel Mayer ◽

Rafael Heiss ◽

Christoph Lutter ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Muscle Stiffness ◽

Post Exercise ◽

Passive Muscle ◽

Passive Muscle Stiffness

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Changes in myocardial myosin heavy chain isoform composition with exercise and post-exercise cold-water immersion

Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility ◽

10.1007/s10974-021-09603-z ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Ramzi A. Al-horani ◽

Mukhallad A. Mohammad ◽

Saja Haifawi ◽

Mohammed Ihsan

Keyword(s):

Myosin Heavy Chain ◽

Heavy Chain ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Post Exercise ◽

Myosin Heavy Chain Isoform

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PGC-1α alternative promoter (Exon 1b) controls augmentation of total PGC-1α gene expression in response to cold water immersion and low glycogen availability

European Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1007/s00421-020-04467-6 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 120 (11) ◽

pp. 2487-2493

Author(s):

R. Allan ◽

J. P. Morton ◽

G. L. Close ◽

B. Drust ◽

W. Gregson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Gene Expression ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Alternative Promoter ◽

Future Research ◽

Peroxisome Proliferator ◽

Local Cooling ◽

Post Exercise ◽

Specific Regulation

AbstractThis investigation sought to determine whether post-exercise cold water immersion and low glycogen availability, separately and in combination, would preferentially activate either the Exon 1a or Exon 1b Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) promoter. Through a reanalysis of sample design, we identified that the systemic cold-induced augmentation of total PGC-1α gene expression observed previously (Allan et al. in J Appl Physiol 123(2):451–459, 2017) was largely a result of increased expression from the alternative promoter (Exon 1b), rather than canonical promoter (Exon 1a). Low glycogen availability in combination with local cooling of the muscle (Allan et al. in Physiol Rep 7(11):e14082, 2019) demonstrated that PGC-1α alternative promoter (Exon 1b) expression continued to rise at 3 h post-exercise in all conditions; whilst, expression from the canonical promoter (Exon 1a) decreased between the same time points (post-exercise–3 h post-exercise). Importantly, this increase in PGC-1α Exon 1b expression was reduced compared to the response of low glycogen or cold water immersion alone, suggesting that the combination of prior low glycogen and CWI post-exercise impaired the response in gene expression versus these conditions individually. Data herein emphasise the influence of post-exercise cooling and low glycogen availability on Exon-specific control of total PGC-1 α gene expression and highlight the need for future research to assess Exon-specific regulation of PGC-1α.

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Cold water immersion attenuates anabolic signaling and skeletal muscle fiber hypertrophy, but not strength gain, following whole-body resistance training

Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1152/japplphysiol.00127.2019 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 127 (5) ◽

pp. 1403-1418 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Jackson J. Fyfe ◽

James R. Broatch ◽

Adam J. Trewin ◽

Erik D. Hanson ◽

Christos K. Argus ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Resistance Training ◽

Protein Content ◽

Muscle Fiber ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Post Exercise ◽

Leg Press ◽

Before And After

We determined the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) on long-term adaptations and post-exercise molecular responses in skeletal muscle before and after resistance training. Sixteen men (22.9 ± 4.6 y; 85.1 ± 17.9 kg; mean ± SD) performed resistance training (3 day/wk) for 7 wk, with each session followed by either CWI [15 min at 10°C, CWI (COLD) group, n = 8] or passive recovery (15 min at 23°C, control group, n = 8). Exercise performance [one-repetition maximum (1-RM) leg press and bench press, countermovement jump, squat jump, and ballistic push-up], body composition (dual X-ray absorptiometry), and post-exercise (i.e., +1 and +48 h) molecular responses were assessed before and after training. Improvements in 1-RM leg press were similar between groups [130 ± 69 kg, pooled effect size (ES): 1.53 ± 90% confidence interval (CI) 0.49], whereas increases in type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area were attenuated with CWI (−1,959 ± 1,675 µM2 ; ES: −1.37 ± 0.99). Post-exercise mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 signaling (rps6 phosphorylation) was blunted for COLD at post-training (POST) +1 h (−0.4-fold, ES: −0.69 ± 0.86) and POST +48 h (−0.2-fold, ES: −1.33 ± 0.82), whereas basal protein degradation markers (FOX-O1 protein content) were increased (1.3-fold, ES: 2.17 ± 2.22). Training-induced increases in heat shock protein (HSP) 27 protein content were attenuated for COLD (−0.8-fold, ES: −0.94 ± 0.82), which also reduced total HSP72 protein content (−0.7-fold, ES: −0.79 ± 0.57). CWI blunted resistance training-induced muscle fiber hypertrophy, but not maximal strength, potentially via reduced skeletal muscle protein anabolism and increased catabolism. Post-exercise CWI should therefore be avoided if muscle hypertrophy is desired. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study adds to existing evidence that post-exercise cold water immersion attenuates muscle fiber growth with resistance training, which is potentially mediated by attenuated post-exercise increases in markers of skeletal muscle anabolism coupled with increased catabolism and suggests that blunted muscle fiber growth with cold water immersion does not necessarily translate to impaired strength development.

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