From Missing Elements to Synthetic Elements
The periodic table consists of about ninety elements that occur naturally, ending with element 92, uranium. One or two of the first ninety-two elements are variously reported either as not occurring on Earth or as occurring in miniscule amounts. To add to the complications in drawing a sharp line between natural and synthetic elements, the element technetium was first created artificially and only later found to occur naturally on Earth in minute amounts. As we have seen in previous chapters, chemists and physicists have succeeded in synthesizing some of the elements that were missing between hydrogen (1) and uranium (92), such as promethium and astatine. But in addition, a further twenty-five or so new elements beyond uranium have been synthesized, although again one or two of these, such as neptunium and plutonium, were later found to exist naturally in exceedingly small amounts. At the time of writing, the heaviest element for which there is good experimental evidence is element-118. All other elements between 92 and 118 have also been successfully synthesized including element-117, which was announced in April of 2010. The synthesis of this element means that for the first time, and probably the last, every single space in a contemporary periodic table has been filled, although some of these elements are still awaiting official ratification. The synthesis of any element involves starting with a particular nucleus and subjecting it to bombardment with small particles with the aim of increasing the atomic number and hence changing the identity of the nucleus in question. More recently, the method of synthesis has changed so that two nuclei of considerable weights are made to collide with the aim of forming a larger and heavier nucleus. In a sense in which all these syntheses are descended from a key experiment, conducted by Rutherford and Soddy in 1919 at the University of Manchester, Rutherford and Soddy bombarded nuclei of nitrogen with α particles (helium ions) with the result that the nitrogen nucleus was transformed into that of another element.