‘Turky Labours’

2020 ◽  
pp. 15-64
Author(s):  
Simon Mills
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Legal Protection ◽  
Roman Catholic ◽  
Institutional History ◽  
Community Or ◽  
History Of ◽  
Scholarly Inquiry ◽  
Detailed Picture

Chapter 1 sets out the institutional history of the Levant Company in London and Aleppo. It argues that the infrastructures developed from the late sixteenth century to facilitate trade – the legal protection provided by the capitulations, regular shipping routes, systems of postal communication – laid the foundations for a ‘literarum commercium’, a commerce of letters, that would have implications beyond the immediate mercantile concerns of the Levant Company. New opportunities for scholarly inquiry were augmented by the growth of the English community, or ‘factory’, in Aleppo, and, in particular, by the appointment, from the early seventeenth century, of a line of clergymen employed to minister to the expatriate merchants and consular staff. Drawing on the Levant Company archive, the chapter paints a detailed picture of this small outpost, positioning it alongside the more established Venetian and French (and later Dutch) communities and the various Roman Catholic missions then stationed in Aleppo. The chaplains came to serve as the crucial link between Syria, London, and the English universities (predominantly Oxford), with whose members many of them remained in touch from abroad. The chapter also provides an overview of intellectual developments which sets the scene for the more detailed investigations of individual projects explored in the remainder of the book.

The Church of Ireland: a critical bibliography, 1536–1992 Part II: 1603–41

1993 ◽  
Vol 28 (112) ◽  
pp. 352-358
Author(s):  
Alan Ford
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Roman Catholic ◽  
Protestant Church ◽  
Church Of Ireland ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Creation ◽  
The Church ◽  
The Way

There is a marked difference between the history of the Church of Ireland in the sixteenth century and in the early seventeenth century. The historian of the early Reformation in Ireland has to deal with shifting religious divides and, in the Church of Ireland, with a complex and ambiguous religious entity, established but not necessarily Protestant, culturally unsure, politically weak, and theologically unselfconscious. By contrast, the first part of the seventeenth century is marked by the creation of a distinct Protestant church, clearly distinguished in structural, racial, theological and political terms from its Roman Catholic counterpart. The history of the Church of Ireland in the first four decades of the seventeenth century is therefore primarily about the creation of this church and the way in which its new structures and exclusive identity were shaped.

Introduction

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rembert Lutjeharms
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Political History ◽  
The Political ◽  
Poetry And Poetics ◽  
Sanskrit Poetics ◽  
History Of ◽  
Sanskrit Poetry ◽  
The Way

This chapter introduces the main themes of the book—Kavikarṇapūra, theology, Sanskrit poetry, and Sanskrit poetics—and provides an overview of each chapter. It briefly highlights the importance of the practice of poetry for the Caitanya Vaiṣṇava tradition, places Kavikarṇapūra in the (political) history of sixteenth‐century Bengal and Orissa as well as sketches his place in the early developments of the Caitanya Vaiṣṇava tradition (a topic more fully explored in Chapter 1). The chapter also reflects more generally on the nature of both his poetry and poetics, and highlights the way Kavikarṇapūra has so far been studied in modern scholarship.

Hymnody and Liturgy

2019 ◽  
pp. 491-506
Author(s):  
Jonathan Hehn
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
North American ◽  
John Calvin ◽  
Church Of Scotland ◽  
Metrical Psalmody ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Church

This chapter outlines the history of Presbyterian worship practice from the sixteenth century to the present, with a focus on North American Presbyterians. Tracing both their hymnody and their liturgy ultimately to John Calvin, Presbyterian communions have a distinct heritage of worship inherited from the Church of Scotland via seventeenth-century Puritans. Long marked by metrical psalmody and guided by the Westminster Directory, Presbyterian worship underwent substantial changes in the nineteenth century. Evangelical and liturgical movements led Presbyterians away from a Puritan visual aesthetic, into the use of nonscriptural hymnody, and toward a recovery of liturgical books. Mainline North American and Scottish Presbyterians solidified these trends in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries; however, conservative North American denominations and some other denominations globally continue to rely heavily on the use of a worship directory and metrical psalmody.

Confession as Encounter with Early Modernity

2021 ◽  
pp. 20-58
Author(s):  
Nadieszda Kizenko
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Practical Purpose ◽  
Roman Catholic ◽  
Religious Culture ◽  
Early Modernity ◽  
Social Discipline ◽  
Modern Europe ◽  
And Control

Chapter 1 examines confession in seventeenth-century Muscovy and Ukraine as part of the European ‘disciplinary revolution’. In their use of confession as a way of meeting challenges to religious and political harmony, seventeenth-century Russia and Ukraine resembled the broad European tendency to religious unification, social discipline, and control. First separately, and then together, Muscovite and Ukrainian clerics in the seventeenth century began to emphasize the sacraments in ways similar to that pursued in the Roman Catholic world. Their emphasis on confession created a new religious culture that brought Orthodox East Slavs into the religious and disciplinary framework of modern Europe. The Old Believer schism in the middle of the century gave confession a practical purpose: it was the most effective way of establishing who was Orthodox, and therefore broadly reliable, and who was schismatic, and therefore dangerous.

scholarly journals The Problem of Heredity, with Special Reference to the Pre-Embryonic Life

1905 ◽  
Vol 51 (212) ◽  
pp. 1-51
Author(s):  
W. Lloyd Andriezen
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Complete Understanding ◽  
The Past ◽  
Hen’S Egg ◽  
Uterine Growth ◽  
Embryonic Life ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Subject

Science, whose high aim it is to investigate Nature, to under stand her secret workings, and thus to win for man the mastery of Nature, must set out with the conviction that Nature is intelligible, comprehensible, and conquerable. In the domain of biological science the problem of heredity occupies a position of great importance, one full of interest to every student of life. For the serious thinker who has not only looked backwards and studied the past of the human race but is inspired by ideals and desires for its future good, the subject of heredity provides an inspiring theme for contemplation and study. The development of our knowledge and the history of human endeavours to reach a complete understanding of the phenomena and conditions of heredity form one of the most interesting chapters in human evolution. Theories of heredity, like theories regarding other phenomena of life, have been expressed in three sets of terms: theological, metaphysical, and scientific. It required no skilled observation of early man to see that in the act of fecundation the male furnished the seminal substance, whereas the female seemed to furnish nothing except the receptacle or “mould,” in the form of the womb, within which the fótus was formed. Thus, what was more natural than to suppose that heredity was solely paternal, that the male element was the germ or seed, and the female organs the soil, in which, by some mysterious process, growth and development of the germ took place. This view of heredity has been expounded in the Manava Dharma-Sastra, one of the ancient sacred books of the Hindus (Delage, L'hérédité, 1903, p. 380). The same view, more or less modified according to the prevailing state of knowledge, was current among the ancient Greeks (Eristratos, Diogenes, and others). Galen and the school of philosophers of Alexandria also upheld the doctrine of the paternal factor of heredity, and thus constituted themselves the school of the Spermatists. Spermatist views prevailed for many centuries, and when towards the close of the seventeenth century Leeuwenhoeck discovered the presence of spermatozoa by the aid of the microscope, the spermatists had a season of rejoicing. Hartsoeker (1694) supposed that within the spermatozoon there was a little being, a human being, in miniature, with all its parts and organs complete, and figured a spermatozoon (highly magnified, of course) in which the little “homunculus” is to be seen seated within the “head” of the former with its arms and legs folded together in small compass, somewhat like a fcetus in utero. The theory of the spermatists was not destined to remain in undisputed possession of the field. The rival school of Harvey in the sixteenth century taught that the semen or sperm did not fertilise the ovum nor even enter the womb, but that it fertilised the entire constitution of the mother by a sort of contagion which rendered her capable of acting as the stimulus of development for the ova in the uterus, and Descartes, in the early part of the seventeenth century, entertained the same views. The ovists now claimed that all the organs of the future being already existed, preformed in miniature, in the ovum, as opposed to the spermatists, who claimed the same preformed structure for the spermatozoon. To the ovists, therefore, the act of fecundation was only an impulse or stimulus to development communicated by the male element to the ovum; the male contributed nothing material in forming the parts and organs of the fótus which existed, preformed in the ovum, so that the child was the product of the mother alone. Among the upholders of the ovist theory, in the eighteenth century were Malpighi, Haller, Bonnet, and Spallanzani. Difficulties, however, arose over both these theories of exclusive inheritance, for the ovists could not explain how the offspring sometimes resembled the father rather than the mother, and the spermatists could not account for cases of close resemblance between the mother and offspring, while neither could, again, account for cases of the mixed or blended resemblance of the offspring to both parents. The theory of preformation gradually lost its interest and its vitality, and received its death-blow at the hands of Wolff (1759), who, not only by theoretical arguments but by indisputable facts as to the nature and process of development of the hen's egg, demonstrated the baselessness of the fancies of the pre-formationists, whether of the spermatic or ovarian school. Finally, there gradually grew up in the nineteenth century the modem view that the male and female (germ and sperm) cells of the respective parents contributed in equal, or nearly equal, proportions to the constitution of the embryo, and that the environment and nourishment of the fertilised ovum during its growth and evolution in the womb was a third factor of importance, especially in the case of those animals which went through a long period of intra-uterine growth and evolution, as in the case of man and the higher mammals.

From Memory to Modernity

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gareth D. Williams
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Memory Function ◽  
Direct Response ◽  
Travel Writings ◽  
History Of ◽  
Literary Memory ◽  
Place Description

Chapter 2 builds on the mnemonic significance of the Etna Idea as traced in Chapter 1, partly by relating Pietro Bembo’s activation of literary memory on Etna to the Classical phenomenon of mnemonic topography, or the embedding of the socio-historical, cultural, and literary past into descriptions of material landscape. De Aetna is also viewed in Chapter 2 in relation to the Renaissance tradition of travel writings that combined topographical surveillance with the visitation of antiquity in merging past and present, or in connecting place description with antiquarian recovery. A further memory function of De Aetna lies in its possible dialogue with, and even its direct response to, Petrarch’s celebrated account of his ascent of Mont Ventoux in 1336. The chapter duly visits that account, but as part of a larger attempt to locate Pietro’s Etna adventure within the broader history of mountaineering and the mixed attitudes to mountains from antiquity to the sixteenth century.

The Gaigneur Clan in the Seventeenth-Century Canada Trade

1998 ◽  
Author(s):  
J.F. Bosher
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Church And State ◽  
Roman Catholic ◽  
Business History ◽  
Maritime Trade ◽  
Financial Success ◽  
History Of ◽  
Trading Firm ◽  
Maritime Community

This essay follows the development of Franco-Canadian maritime trade over the course of the seventeenth century, by documenting the business history of the Gaigneur merchant family, headed by Pierre Gaigneur. The Gaigneurs trading firm sent more ships, goods, and people to Canada during the seventeenth century than any other firm of the era; this essay seeks to determine the reasons for their success. It considers the maritime community of La Rochelle; the Huguenot community; potential signs of religious compromise by the Roman Catholic Gaigneurs when faced with business pressure. The conclusion claims the dual support of both Church and State permitted the expansion of trade and the financial success of the Gaigneut family.

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