Abstract
Ralstonia solanacearum is included in the A2 (high risk) list of quarantine organisms by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). EPPO Code for R. solanacearum is RALSSO, while the phytosanitary categorization of the species in EPPO A2 list is no.58, EU: I/A2 (EPPO, 2018). Bacterial wilt disease was first reported in southern USA in the late nineteenth century on tomato plants (Smith, 1896). Infected plant materials (e.g. potato tubers) transmit the pathogen over long distances; hence, quarantine inspections and plant sanitary practices are the cornerstone of disease management (EPPO, 2018). R. solanacearum strains in the race 3 group are a select agent under the US Agricultural Bioterrorism Protection Act of 2002 (USDA, 2005). Peculiarly, the organism, if not yet already present in North America in pelargonium (Strider et al., 1981), was introduced with cuttings of this host by American companies producing these cuttings for their markets in countries like Kenya and Guatemala (Norman et al., 1999, 2009; Kim et al., 2002; Williamson et al., 2002; O'Hern, 2004). A similar situation led to introductions of the pathogen from Kenya into some northern European nurseries. Once the source (contaminated surface water) was recognized and proper control measures (use of deep soil water, disinfection of cutting producing premises and replacement of mother stock), the problem was solved and the disease in greenhouses eradicated (Janse et al., 2004). Similarly race 1 has been introduced into greenhouses with ornamental plants (rhizomes, cuttings or fully grown plants) such as Epipremnum, Anthurium, Curcuma spp. and Begonia eliator from tropical areas (Norman and Yuen, 1998, 1999; Janse et al., 2006; Janse, 2012). Introduction can and did occur from Costa Rica and the Caribbean, Indonesia, Thailand and South Africa. However, this idea of placing pathogens on bioterrorist list for unclear and perhaps industry-driven reasons and its effects, is strongly opposed in a recent publication from leading phytobacteriologists. This is because R. solanacearum is an endemic pathogen, causing endemic disease in most parts of its geographic occurrence, moreover normal quarantine regulations are already in place where the disease is not present or only sporadically and are thought to be more efficient and less damaging to trade and research than placing this pathogen on select agent lists and treating it as such (Young et al., 2008). Peculiarly, it has been used in the control of a real invasive species, the weed kahili ginger (Hedychium gardenarium) in tropical forests in Hawaii. This is not without risks because strains occurring on this weed host were thought to be non-virulent, but later appeared to be virulent on many edible and ornamental ginger species as well (Anderson and Gardner, 1999; Paret et al., 2008). Another threat for these countries could be strains belonging to race 1, biovar 1 (phylotype I) that have already been reported from field-grown potatoes in Portugal (Cruz et al., 2008).
Utilization of Filamentous Phage ϕRSM3 to Control Bacterial Wilt Caused by Ralstonia solanacearum
