scholarly journals Daily Salt Intake, its Discretionary Use and Validation of Methods for Estimation using Spot Urine, Findings from Islamabad, Pakistan

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muhammad Arif Nadeem Saqib ◽  
Ibrar Rafique ◽  
Muhammad Ansar ◽  
Tayyaba Rahat
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Male Gender ◽  
Healthy Individuals ◽  
Pakistani Population ◽  
Spot Urine ◽  
Sample Spot ◽  
Spot Urine Sample ◽  
High Salt Intake ◽  
Insignificant Difference

Background: The study was designed to estimate daily salt intake, its discretionary use in healthy individuals and to validate three common methods for salt estimation in Pakistani population. Methods: Information on demography and discretionary salt use was collected healthy adults (>18 years) along with a blood sample, spot urine sample and 24 hours urine samples. Sodium, chloride, potassium levels and serum creatinine were measured using standard methods. For daily salt estimation, three common methods i.e. INTERSALT, Tanaka and Kawasaki were validated for their applicability in local settings. Results: Overall 24 h sodium excretion was 158 mmol/l indicating intake of 8.64 (4.43) grams salt per day which was significantly associated with male gender (p. <0.004) and adding salt during cooking (p. <0.0001). Most (73%) of the participants know about hazardous effects of high salt intake, however, only 25% consider important to lower salt intake. Although, there is insignificant difference (p. 0.09) between measured and estimated 24 hour urine however none of three methods i.e. INTERSALT(bias: -19.64; CCC -0.79), Tanaka(bias: 167.35; CCC -0.37) and Kawasaki (bias: -42.49, CCC -0.79) showed any agreement between measured and estimated 24 hour sodium. Conclusion: Daily intake of salt was high than recommended by the WHO. Findings showed that none of the three methods could be used for estimating daily intake of salt in local settings of Pakistan.

scholarly journals HIGH SALT INTAKE IMPLICATIONS AS RISK FACTOR FOR HYPERTENSION AND COMPARISON OF THREE SALT ESTIMATION METHODS- FINDINGS FROM ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN

2022 ◽  
Vol 54 (4) ◽  
pp. 309-314
Author(s):  
Muhammad Arif Nadeem Saqib ◽  
Ibrar Rafique ◽  
Muhammad Ansar ◽  
Tayyaba Rahat
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Male Gender ◽  
High Salt ◽  
Estimation Methods ◽  
Healthy Individuals ◽  
Pakistani Population ◽  
Standard Methods ◽  
Sample Spot ◽  
High Salt Intake

Objectives: The study was designed to estimate daily salt intake, its discretionary use in healthy individuals and to validate three common methods for salt estimation in Pakistani population. Methodology: Information on demography and discretionary salt use was collected from healthy adults (>18 years) along with a blood sample, spot and 24 hour urine samples. Sodium, chloride, potassium levels and serum creatinine were measured using standard methods. For daily salt estimation, three common methods i.e. INTERSALT, Tanaka and Kawasaki were validated for their applicability in local settings. Results: Overall 24 h sodium excretion was 158 mmol/l indicating intake of 8.64 (±4.43) grams salt per day which was significantly associated with male gender (p. <0.004) and adding salt during cooking (p. <0.0001). Most (73%) of the participants know about hazardous effects of high salt intake, however, only 25% consider important to lower salt intake. None of three methods i.e. INTERSALT (bias: -19.64; CCC -0.79), Tanaka (bias: 167.35; CCC -0.37) and Kawasaki (bias: -42.49, CCC -0.79) showed any agreement between measured and estimated 24 hour sodium. Conclusion: Daily intake of salt was high which increases the risk for hypertension. Comparison of methods for estimation revealed that none of the three methods could be used for estimating daily intake of salt in local settings of Pakistan.

scholarly journals Monitoring the South African population’s salt intake: spot urine v. 24 h urine

2017 ◽  
Vol 21 (03) ◽  
pp. 480-488 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bianca Swanepoel ◽  
Aletta E Schutte ◽  
Marike Cockeran ◽  
Krisela Steyn ◽  
Edelweiss Wentzel-Viljoen
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
South African ◽  
Urine Sample ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Urine Samples ◽  
The South ◽  
Population Groups ◽  
Spot Urine ◽  
Spot Urine Sample ◽  
African Context

Abstract Objective The present study set out to determine whether morning spot urine samples can be used to monitor Na (and K) intake levels in South Africa, instead of the ‘gold standard’ 24 h urine sample. Design Participants collected one 24 h and one spot urine sample for Na and K analysis, after which estimations using three different formulas (Kawasaki, Tanaka and INTERSALT) were calculated. Setting Between 2013 and 2015, urine samples were collected from different population groups in South Africa. Subjects A total of 681 spot and 24 h urine samples were collected from white (n 259), black (n 315) and Indian (n 107) subgroups, mostly women. Results The Kawasaki and the Tanaka formulas showed significantly higher (P≤0·001) estimated Na values than the measured 24 h excretion in the whole population (5677·79 and 4235·05 v. 3279·19 mg/d). The INTERSALT formula did not differ from the measured 24 h excretion for the whole population. The Kawasaki formula seemed to overestimate Na excretion in all subgroups tested and also showed the highest degree of bias (−2242 mg/d, 95 % CI−10 659, 6175) compared with the INTERSALT formula, which had the lowest bias (161 mg/d, 95 % CI−4038, 4360). Conclusions Estimations of Na excretion by the three formulas should be used with caution when reporting on Na intake levels. More research is needed to validate and develop a specific formula for the South African context with its different population groups. The WHO’s recommendation of using 24 h urine collection until more studies are carried out is still supported.

scholarly journals Knowledge of Salt intake and Blood Pressure Control among Hypertensive Patients in a Tertiary Hospital

2019 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 14-18
Author(s):  
A O Adeagbo ◽  
O E Omosanya ◽  
A O Ayodapo ◽  
O T Elegbede ◽  
O M Shabi
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Blood Pressure Control ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Pressure Control ◽  
High Salt ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Hypertensive Patients ◽  
High Salt Intake

As the prevalence of hypertension increases in adult Nigerians, achieving target blood pressure (BP) control has become an important management challenge. High salt intake is an important risk factor for hypertension and its high intake prevents adequate BP control. This study aims to explore the knowledge of salt intake and blood pressure control among hypertensive patients. Data were collected from a cross-sectional sample involving 564 adult hypertensive patients that were followed for at least 3 months prior to recruitment to this study. Data collection comprised interviewer-administered structured questionnaires about demographics, knowledge and practices related to salt, followed by measurement of blood pressure. A majority (92.9%) of the respondents knew that eating too much salt could affect health and less than one-half (40.1%) actually knew that not more than one teaspoon of salt should be consumed daily. Nearly all respondents (516) knew high BP to be a possible consequence of high salt intake. Among those that took a lot of salty food, 87.7% and 78.5% had high systolic BP and diastolic BP respectively. Although the majority of respondents were knowledgeable about the adverse effects of salt, few knew the daily intake recommended value. The higher the dietary salt intake, the higher the chances of having poor BP control. Increased knowledge about recommended salt intake and individual guidance could be important for reducing salt intake in hypertensive patients.

scholarly journals Salt as a public health challenge in continental European convenience and ready meals

2014 ◽  
Vol 17 (11) ◽  
pp. 2459-2466 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sonja Kanzler ◽  
Christina Hartmann ◽  
Anita Gruber ◽  
Guido Lammer ◽  
Karl-Heinz Wagner
Keyword(s):  
Public Health ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Content ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Health Impact ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
High Salt Intake ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Comprehensive Survey ◽  
The Uk

AbstractObjectiveTo assess the salt content of continental European convenience and ready meals.DesignA multistage study in which, after laboratory analysis of the products’ salt contents (n32), new salt-reduced meals were developed through food reformulation. Additionally, a comprehensive survey of convenience meals from the Austrian market (n572) was conducted to evaluate the salt contents of a wider product range.SettingSix continental European countries participated.SubjectsNo subjects enrolled.ResultsThe salt contents of continental European convenience and ready meals mostly exceeded 1·8 g/100 g, which is 30 % of the targeted daily intake level; some contained even more than the recommended daily intake of 6 g. The highest salt contents were found in pizzas and pasta dishes, the lowest ones in sweet meals. Large variations in salt levels were found not only between and within meal type categories, but also between similar meals from different producers. In addition, our approach to develop new salt-reduced meals showed that a stepwise reduction of the ready meals’ salt contents is possible without compromising the sensory quality.ConclusionsTo address the problem of hypertension and increased risk for CVD through high salt intake, a reduction of the salt levels in continental European convenience and ready meals is urgently needed, since they are providing a major part of the daily salt intake. Successful national-wide salt reduction strategies in the UK or Finland have already demonstrated the public health impact of this setting.

Prevalence, Biochemical and Clinical Characteristics of Resistant Hypertension

2018 ◽  
Vol 69 (10) ◽  
pp. 2845-2849
Author(s):  
Daniela Gurgus ◽  
Elena Ardeleanu ◽  
Carmen Gadau ◽  
Roxana Folescu ◽  
Ioan Tilea ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Cardiovascular Disease ◽  
Resistant Hypertension ◽  
Clinical Characteristics ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Target Organ Damage ◽  
Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis ◽  
Organ Damage ◽  
Left Ventricular ◽  
High Salt Intake

The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the prevalence of resistant hypertension (RH) in primary care setting and to analyse its biochemical and clinical characteristics. After 3 months of treatment and evaluation, 721 (14.01%) of 5,146 patients with hypertension did not reach target office blood pressure of [ 140/90 mmHg. After exclusion of �white-coat effect� with ambulatory blood pressure, of secondary and pseudo- resistant hypertension, prevalence of RH was 6.74%. Lifestyle factors associated with RH were physical inactivity, obesity, high salt intake, smoking and excessive alcohol ingestion. Compared to controlled hypertension, RH patients presented higher incidence of family history of cardiovascular disease (38.90% vs 25.94%), diabetes mellitus (34.87% vs 19.01%), impaired fasting glucose (21.91% vs 19.07%), target organ damage (29.1% vs 15.95%), and cardiovascular disease (27.09% vs 17.06%). Dyslipidaemia (52.90% vs 42.03%), fasting plasma glucose (116.10�38.9 vs 107.80�37.2), HbA1c (6.41�1.42 vs 5.96�0.94), serum creatinine (1.09�0.27 vs 1.03�0.24) and microalbuminuria (21.90% vs 10.95%) were significantly higher in RH. Predictors of RH, determined by a multivariate logistic regression analysis were left ventricular hypertrophy (OD 2.14, 95% CI 1.32-3.69), renal impairment expressed as eGFR [ 60 ml/min/1.73m2 (OD 1.62, 95% CI 1.21-2.21) and the presence of cardiovascular disease (OD 1.48, 95% CI 1.02-2.16).

scholarly journals Salt Intake in Nigeria: a nationwide population survey

2020 ◽  
Vol 41 (Supplement_2) ◽  
Author(s):  
A.N Odili ◽  
B.S Chori ◽  
B Danladi ◽  
P.C Nwakile ◽  
J.O Ogedengbe ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Population Analysis ◽  
Cost Effective ◽  
Rural Site ◽  
Urban Site ◽  
Funding Source ◽  
Salt Reduction ◽  
High Salt Intake ◽  
The Impact

Abstract Background Population wide salt reduction programmes are cost effective strategies for control of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Obtaining a nationwide salt consumption data in a multi-cultural setting as Nigeria's is key for proper implementation and monitoring of such strategy. Methods We measured sodium in 24-hour urine of free-living adult Nigerians selected from an urban and a rural site each from the 6 geopolitical zones of Nigeria to evaluate patterns of salt intake and its associations with blood pressures (BP). Results Across the 12 sites, sodium intake ranged from 97.9 in the rural South-South to 210 mmol/day in the urban site of the same zone. Overall, the median (IQR) daily sodium intake was 143.5 (97.8) mmol; with higher (p=0.0028) levels among the urban 149.7 (113.8) compared to the rural 133.1 (105.2) dwellers. Overall, 20% of the subjects consumed less than the recommended 2g (86mmol) of sodium daily. After adjustment for age, sex and BMI; sodium intake and BP (systolic and diastolic) were positively associated in 8 out of the 12 sites; significantly so in 2 (p&lt;0.05) for systolic. Within population analysis; which included 973 individuals, increasing sodium intake tended (not significantly) to increase SBP but decrease DBP. However, among subjects whose sodium intake was in excess of 257mmol/day, a 100 mmol/day increase in sodium intake was significantly (p=0.04) associated with a 3.3 mmHg increase in SBP. Conclusion Salt intake among Nigerians is higher than the recommended. The impact of sodium intake on BP appears to be evident only among individuals with high salt intake. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: Foundation. Main funding source(s): Wellcome Trust

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