AbstractHuman-driven habitat fragmentation and loss have led to a proliferation of small and isolated plant and animal populations with high risk of extinction. One of the main threats to extinction in these populations is inbreeding depression, which is primarily caused by the exposure of recessive deleterious mutations as homozygous by inbreeding. The typical approach for managing these populations is to maintain high genetic diversity, often by translocating individuals from large populations to initiate a ‘genetic rescue.’ However, the limitations of this approach have recently been highlighted by the demise of the gray wolf population on Isle Royale, which was driven to the brink of extinction soon after the arrival of a migrant from the large mainland wolf population. Here, we use a novel population genetic simulation framework to investigate the role of genetic diversity, deleterious variation, and demographic history in mediating extinction risk due to inbreeding depression in small populations. We show that, under realistic models of dominance, large populations harbor high levels of recessive strongly deleterious variation due to these mutations being hidden from selection in the heterozygous state. As a result, when large populations contract, they experience a substantially elevated risk of extinction after these strongly deleterious mutations are exposed by inbreeding. Moreover, we demonstrate that although translocating individuals to small populations is broadly effective as a means to reduce extinction risk, using small or moderate-sized source populations rather than large source populations can greatly increase the effectiveness of genetic rescue due to greater purging in these smaller populations. Our findings challenge the traditional conservation paradigm that focuses on maximizing genetic diversity to reduce extinction risk in favor of a view that emphasizes minimizing strongly deleterious variation. These insights have important implications for managing small and isolated populations in the increasingly fragmented landscape of the Anthropocene.Impact SummaryNumerous threats to extinction exist for small populations, including the detrimental effects of inbreeding. Although much of the focus in reducing these harmful effects in small populations has been on maintaining high genetic diversity, here we use simulations to demonstrate that emphasis should instead be placed on minimizing strongly deleterious variation. More specifically, we show that historically-large populations with high levels of genetic diversity also harbor elevated levels of recessive strongly deleterious mutations hidden in the heterozygous state. Thus, when these populations contract, inbreeding can expose these strongly deleterious mutations as homozygous and lead to severe inbreeding depression and rapid extinction. Moreover, we demonstrate that, although translocating individuals to these small populations to perform a ‘genetic rescue’ is broadly beneficial, the effectiveness of this strategy can be greatly increased by targeting historically-smaller source populations where recessive strongly deleterious mutations have been purged. These results challenge long-standing views on how to best conserve small and isolated populations facing the threat of inbreeding depression, and have immediate implications for preserving biodiversity in the increasingly fragmented landscape of the Anthropocene.
Genetic Allee effects and their interaction with ecological Allee effects
