Simultaneous Tracking of Capsid, Tegument, and Envelope Protein Localization in Living Cells Infected with Triply Fluorescent Herpes Simplex Virus 1

ABSTRACT We report here the construction of a triply fluorescent-tagged herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) expressing capsid protein VP26, tegument protein VP22, and envelope protein gB as fusion proteins with monomeric yellow, red, and cyan fluorescent proteins, respectively. The recombinant virus enabled us to monitor the dynamics of these capsid, tegument, and envelope proteins simultaneously in the same live HSV-1-infected cells and to visualize single extracellular virions with three different fluorescent emissions. In Vero cells infected by the triply fluorescent virus, multiple cytoplasmic compartments were found to be induced close to the basal surfaces of the infected cells (the adhesion surfaces of the infected cells on the solid growth substrate). Major capsid, tegument, and envelope proteins accumulated and colocalized in the compartments, as did marker proteins for the trans-Golgi network (TGN) which has been implicated to be the site of HSV-1 secondary envelopment. Moreover, formation of the compartments was correlated with the dynamic redistribution of the TGN proteins induced by HSV-1 infection. These results suggest that HSV-1 infection causes redistribution of TGN membranes to form multiple cytoplasmic compartments, possibly for optimal secondary envelopment. This is the first real evidence for the assembly of all three types of herpesvirus proteins—capsid, tegument, and envelope membrane proteins—in TGN.

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Assembly of VP26 in herpes simplex virus-1 capsid implicated by 3-D structure of recombinant capsid

Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America ◽

10.1017/s0424820100140579 ◽

1995 ◽

Vol 53 ◽

pp. 840-841

Author(s):

Z. Hong Zhou ◽

Jing He ◽

Joanita Jakana ◽

J. D. Tatman ◽

Frazer J. Rixon ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

3D Structure ◽

Structure Study ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Shell Proteins ◽

Life Threatening ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is a ubiquitous virus which is implicated in diseases ranging from self-curing cold sores to life-threatening infections. The 2500 Å diameter herpes virion is composed of a glycoprotein spike containing, lipid envelope, enclosing a protein layer (the tegument) in which is embedded the capsid (which contains the dsDNA genome). The B-, and A- and C-capsids, representing different morphogenetic stages in HSV-1 infected cells, are composed of 7, and 5 structural proteins respectively. The three capsid types are organized in similar T=16 icosahedral shells with 12 pentons, 150 hexons, and 320 connecting triplexes. Our previous 3D structure study at 26 Å revealed domain features of all these structural components and suggested probable locations for the outer shell proteins, VP5, VP26, VP19c and VP23. VP5 makes up most of both pentons and hexons. VP26 appeared to bind to the VP5 subunit in hexon but not to that in penton.

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Antiviral Activity of the G-Quadruplex Ligand TMPyP4 against Herpes Simplex Virus-1

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v13020196 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (2) ◽

pp. 196

Author(s):

Sara Artusi ◽

Emanuela Ruggiero ◽

Matteo Nadai ◽

Beatrice Tosoni ◽

Rosalba Perrone ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Dna Replication ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Antiviral Activity ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Tem Analysis ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

The herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) genome is extremely rich in guanine tracts that fold into G-quadruplexes (G4s), nucleic acid secondary structures implicated in key biological functions. Viral G4s were visualized in HSV-1 infected cells, with massive virus cycle-dependent G4-formation peaking during viral DNA replication. Small molecules that specifically interact with G4s have been shown to inhibit HSV-1 DNA replication. We here investigated the antiviral activity of TMPyP4, a porphyrin known to interact with G4s. The analogue TMPyP2, with lower G4 affinity, was used as control. We showed by biophysical analysis that TMPyP4 interacts with HSV-1 G4s, and inhibits polymerase progression in vitro; in infected cells, it displayed good antiviral activity which, however, was independent of inhibition of virus DNA replication or entry. At low TMPyP4 concentration, the virus released by the cells was almost null, while inside the cell virus amounts were at control levels. TEM analysis showed that virus particles were trapped inside cytoplasmatic vesicles, which could not be ascribed to autophagy, as proven by RT-qPCR, western blot, and immunofluorescence analysis. Our data indicate a unique mechanism of action of TMPyP4 against HSV-1, and suggest the unprecedented involvement of currently unknown G4s in viral or antiviral cellular defense pathways.

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Herpes Simplex Virus 1 UL34 Protein Regulates the Global Architecture of the Endoplasmic Reticulum in Infected Cells

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.00271-17 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 91 (12) ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Fumio Maeda ◽

Jun Arii ◽

Yoshitaka Hirohata ◽

Yuhei Maruzuru ◽

Naoto Koyanagi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Endoplasmic Reticulum ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Null Mutation ◽

Wild Type ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Nuclear Egress ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

ABSTRACT Upon herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection, the CD98 heavy chain (CD98hc) is redistributed around the nuclear membrane (NM), where it promotes viral de-envelopment during the nuclear egress of nucleocapsids. In this study, we attempted to identify the factor(s) involved in CD98hc accumulation and demonstrated the following: (i) the null mutation of HSV-1 UL34 caused specific dispersion throughout the cytoplasm of CD98hc and the HSV-1 de-envelopment regulators, glycoproteins B and H (gB and gH); (ii) as observed with CD98hc, gB, and gH, wild-type HSV-1 infection caused redistribution of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) markers calnexin and ERp57 around the NM, whereas the UL34-null mutation caused cytoplasmic dispersion of these markers; (iii) the ER markers colocalized efficiently with CD98hc, gB, and gH in the presence and absence of UL34 in HSV-1-infected cells; (iv) at the ultrastructural level, wild-type HSV-1 infection caused ER compression around the NM, whereas the UL34-null mutation caused cytoplasmic dispersion of the ER; and (v) the UL34-null mutation significantly decreased the colocalization efficiency of lamin protein markers of the NM with CD98hc and gB. Collectively, these results indicate that HSV-1 infection causes redistribution of the ER around the NM, with resulting accumulation of ER-associated CD98hc, gB, and gH around the NM and that UL34 is required for ER redistribution, as well as for efficient recruitment to the NM of the ER-associated de-envelopment factors. Our study suggests that HSV-1 induces remodeling of the global ER architecture for recruitment of regulators mediating viral nuclear egress to the NM. IMPORTANCE The ER is an important cellular organelle that exists as a complex network extending throughout the cytoplasm. Although viruses often remodel the ER to facilitate viral replication, information on the effects of herpesvirus infections on ER morphological integrity is limited. Here, we showed that HSV-1 infection led to compression of the global ER architecture around the NM, resulting in accumulation of ER-associated regulators associated with nuclear egress of HSV-1 nucleocapsids. We also identified HSV-1 UL34 as a viral factor that mediated ER remodeling. Furthermore, we demonstrated that UL34 was required for efficient targeting of these regulators to the NM. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing that a herpesvirus remodels ER global architecture. Our study also provides insight into the mechanism by which the regulators for HSV-1 nuclear egress are recruited to the NM, where this viral event occurs.

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Cbl E3 Ligase Mediates the Removal of Nectin-1 from the Surface of Herpes Simplex Virus 1-Infected Cells

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.00393-17 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 91 (12) ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Thibaut Deschamps ◽

Christos Dogrammatzis ◽

Ranajoy Mullick ◽

Maria Kalamvoki

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Growth Factor ◽

Cell Surface ◽

E3 Ligase ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Entry Receptor ◽

Hsv 1

ABSTRACT The Cbl E3 ligase has been linked to the down-modulation of surface signaling responses by inducing internalization of surface receptors. The adaptor protein CIN85 is a partner of Cbl that augments many of these interactions. Previously, an interaction was demonstrated between ICP0 and CIN85, which results in the removal of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) from the surface of the infected cells with a concomitant attenuation of EGFR signaling. Here, we examined whether Cbl mediates the removal of the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) entry receptor Nectin-1 from the surface of infected cells. We found the following: (i) that Cbl, Nectin-1, and the viral glycoprotein D (gD) form a complex in infected cells; (ii) that during infection Nectin-1 is removed from the surface of the infected cells but is retained on the surface of cells that have been depleted of Cbl; and (iii) that in cells infected with a ΔICP0 mutant virus, Nectin-1 remained on the cell surface. Thus, Cbl is necessary but not sufficient for the removal of Nectin-1 from the cell surface. In addition, we observed that in Cbl-depleted cells there was enhanced entry after infection. These cells were susceptible to secondary infections by HSV-1. Viral entry in CIN85-depleted cells was only moderately enhanced compared to that in the Cbl-depleted cells, suggesting that the Cbl–Nectin-1 interaction is likely the key to the downregulation of surface Nectin-1. The removal of the HSV-1 entry receptor Nectin-1 from the surface of the infected cells may be part of the strategy of the virus to efficiently spread to uninfected cells. IMPORTANCE The Cbl E3 ligase suppresses surface signaling responses by inducing internalization of surface components. The targets of Cbl include such components as immune system receptors, growth factor receptors, adhesion, and cell-to-cell contact molecules. The immediate early protein ICP0 of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) interacts with CIN85, an adaptor protein that augments Cbl functions. The consequence of this interaction is the removal of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) from the surface of the infected cells with concomitant suppression of the EGF ligand signaling. The viral entry receptor Nectin-1 is also internalized during HSV-1 infection in a Cbl-dependent mechanism, and that increases the opportunity of the virus to spread to uninfected cells. The diversion of the Cbl/CIN85 endocytic machinery may be a strategy utilized by the virus to alter the cell surface pattern to prevent detrimental host responses.

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hnRNPA2B1 Associated with Recruitment of RNA into Exosomes Plays a Key Role in Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Release from Infected Cells

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.00367-20 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 94 (13) ◽

Author(s):

Xusha Zhou ◽

Lei Wang ◽

Weixuan Zou ◽

Xiaoqing Chen ◽

Bernard Roizman ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Cell Contact ◽

Apical Surface ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Fold Reduction ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Extracellular Environment ◽

Hsv 1

ABSTRACT hnRNPA2B1, an abundant cellular protein, has been reported to recruit RNAs bearing a specific sequence (EXO motif) into exosomes. We characterized an exosome population averaging 100 ± 50 nm in diameter and containing a defined set of constitutive exosome markers. This population packages microRNAs (miRNAs) and can be directed to block targeted gene expression in a dose-dependent fashion. The objective of this study was to characterize the role of hnRNPA2B1 in the recruitment of miRNA. We report the following four key findings. (i) hnRNPA2B1 is not a component of exosomes produced in HEp-2 or HEK293T cells. Hence, hnRNPA2B1 carries its cargo, at most, to the site of exosome assembly, but it is not itself incorporated into exosomes. (ii) The accumulation of exosomes produced by cells in which the gene encoding hnRNPA2B1 has been knocked out (ΔhnRNPA2B1 cells) was reduced 3-fold. (iii) In uninfected HEp-2 cells, hnRNPA2B1 is localized in the nucleus. In cells infected with herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), hnRNPA2B1 was quantitatively exported to the cytoplasm and at least a fraction of hnRNPA2B1 colocalized with a Golgi marker. (iv) Lastly, in ΔhnRNPA2B1 cells, there was a 2- to 3-fold reduction in virus yield but a significant (>10-fold) reduction in HSV-1 released through the apical surface into the extracellular environment. The absence of hnRNPA2B1 had no significant impact on the basolateral export of HSV-1 from infected to uninfected cells by direct cell-to-cell contact. The results suggest that hnRNPA2B1 plays a key role in the transport of enveloped virus from its site of assembly to the extracellular environment. IMPORTANCE In this report, we show that hnRNPA2B1 is not a component of exosomes produced in HEp-2 or HEK293T cells. In herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)-infected cells, hnRNPA2B1 was quantitatively translocated from the nucleus into the cytoplasm. In infected ΔhnRNPA2B1 cells, Golgi-dependent transport of virus from the apical surface to the extracellular medium was significantly reduced. In essence, this report supports the hypothesis that hnRNPA2B1 plays a key role in the egress of exosomes and HSV-1 from infected cells.

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Conserved Residues in the UL24 Protein of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Are Important for Dispersal of the Nucleolar Protein Nucleolin

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.01428-09 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 84 (1) ◽

pp. 109-118 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Luc Bertrand ◽

Gabriel André Leiva-Torres ◽

Huda Hyjazie ◽

Angela Pearson

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Conserved Residues ◽

Localization Pattern ◽

Plaque Phenotype ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Substitution Mutations ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

ABSTRACTThe UL24 family of proteins is widely conserved among herpesviruses. We demonstrated previously that UL24 of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is important for the dispersal of nucleolin from nucleolar foci throughout the nuclei of infected cells. Furthermore, the N-terminal portion of UL24 localizes to nuclei and can disperse nucleolin in the absence of any other viral proteins. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that highly conserved residues in UL24 are important for the ability of the protein to modify the nuclear distribution of nucleolin. We constructed a panel of substitution mutations in UL24 and tested their effects on nucleolin staining patterns. We found that modified UL24 proteins exhibited a range of subcellular distributions. Mutations associated with a wild-type localization pattern for UL24 correlated with high levels of nucleolin dispersal. Interestingly, mutations targeting two regions, namely, within the first homology domain and overlapping or near the previously identified PD-(D/E)XK endonuclease motif, caused the most altered UL24 localization pattern and the most drastic reduction in its ability to disperse nucleolin. Viral mutants corresponding to the substitutions G121A and E99A/K101A both exhibited a syncytial plaque phenotype at 39°C. vUL24-E99A/K101A replicated to lower titers than did vUL24-G121A or KOS. Furthermore, the E99A/K101A mutation caused the greatest impairment of HSV-1-induced dispersal of nucleolin. Our results identified residues in UL24 that are critical for the ability of UL24 to alter nucleoli and further support the notion that the endonuclease motif is important for the function of UL24 during infection.

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The Putative Terminase Subunit of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Encoded by UL28 Is Necessary and Sufficient To Mediate Interaction between pUL15 and pUL33

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.00125-06 ◽

2006 ◽

Vol 80 (12) ◽

pp. 5733-5739 ◽

Cited By ~ 38

Author(s):

Kui Yang ◽

Joel D. Baines

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Molecular Motors ◽

Uninfected Cell ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Terminase Subunit ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Necessary And Sufficient ◽

Hsv 1

ABSTRACT Viral terminases play essential roles as components of molecular motors that package viral DNA into capsids. Previous results indicated that the putative terminase subunits of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) encoded by UL15 and UL28 (designated pUL15 and pUL28, respectively) coimmunoprecipitate with the UL33 protein from lysates of infected cells. All three proteins are among six required for HSV-1 DNA packaging but dispensable for assembly of immature capsids. The current results show that in both infected- and uninfected-cell lysates, pUL28 coimmunoprecipitates with either pUL33 or pUL15, whereas pUL15 and pUL33 do not coimmunoprecipitate unless pUL28 is present. The UL28 protein was sufficient to stabilize pUL33 from proteasomal degradation in an engineered cell line and was necessary to stabilize pUL33 in infected cells, whereas pUL15 had no such effects. The presence of pUL33 was dispensable for the pUL15/pUL28 interaction in lysates of both infected and uninfected cells but augmented the tendency for pUL15 and pUL28 to coimmunoprecipitate. These data suggest that pUL28 and pUL33 interact directly and that pUL15 interacts directly with pUL28 but only indirectly with pUL33. It is logical to propose that the indirect interaction of pUL15 and pUL33 is mediated through the interaction of both proteins with pUL28. The data also suggest that one function of pUL33 is to optimize the pUL15/pUL28 interaction.

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Diverse populations of extracellular vesicles with opposite functions during herpes simplex virus 1 infection

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.02357-20 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Christos Dogrammatzis ◽

Shadia Saleh ◽

Clayton Deighan ◽

Maria Kalamvoki

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Extracellular Vesicles ◽

Functional Characterization ◽

Cell Communication ◽

Antiviral Effect ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by all types of cells as a means of intercellular communication. Their significance lies in the fact that they can alter recipient cells functions, despite their limited capacity for cargo. We have previously demonstrated that herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection influences the cargo and functions of EVs released by infected cells, and that these EVs negatively impact a subsequent HSV-1 infection. In the present study, we have implemented cutting-edge technologies to further characterize EVs released during HSV-1 infection. We identified distinct EV populations that were separable through a gradient approach. One population was positive for the tetraspanin CD63 and was distinct from EVs carrying components of the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT). Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) combined with protein analysis indicated that the production of CD63+ EVs was selectively induced upon HSV-1 infection. The ExoView platform supported these data and suggested that the amount of CD63 per vesicle is higher upon infection. This platform also identified EV populations positive for other tetraspanins, including CD81 and CD9, whose abundance decreased upon HSV-1 infection. The STimulator of INterferon Genes (STING) was found in CD63+ EVs released during HSV-1 infection, while viral components were found in ESCRT+ EVs. Functional characterization of these EVs demonstrated that they have opposite effects on the infection, but the dominant effect was negative. Overall, we have identified the dominant population of EVs, and other EV populations produced during HSV-1 infection, and we have provided information about potential roles. Importance Extracellular vesicles mediate cell-to-cell communication and convey messages important for cell homeostasis. Pathways of EV biogenesis are often hijacked by pathogens to facilitate their dissemination and to establish a favorable microenvironment for the infection. We have previously shown that HSV-1 infection alters the cargo and functions of the released EVs, which negatively impact the infection. We have built upon our previous findings by developing procedures to separate EV populations from HSV-1 infected cells. We identified the major population of EVs released during infection, which carries the DNA sensor STING and has an antiviral effect. We also identified an EV population that carries selected viral proteins and has a pro-viral role. This is the first study to characterize EV populations during infection. These data indicate that the complex interactions between the virus and the host are extended to the extracellular environment and could impact HSV-1 dissemination and persistence in the host.

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Ex vivo infection of human skin with herpes simplex virus 1 reveals mechanical wounds as insufficient entry portals via the skin surface

10.1101/2021.06.02.446703 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

nydia De La Cruz ◽

Maureen Moeckel ◽

Lisa Wirtz ◽

Katharina Sunaoglu ◽

Wolfram Malter ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Human Skin ◽

Ex Vivo ◽

Basal Layer ◽

Skin Surface ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) enters its human host via the skin or mucosa. The open question is how the virus invades this highly protective tissue in vivo to approach its receptors in the epidermis and initiate infection. Here, we performed ex vivo infection studies in human skin to investigate how susceptible the epidermis and dermis are to HSV-1 and whether wounding facilitates viral invasion. Upon ex vivo infection of complete skin, only sample edges demonstrated infected cells. After removal of the dermis, HSV 1 efficiently invaded the basal layer, and from there, gained access to suprabasal layers supporting a high susceptibility of the epidermis. In contrast, only single infected cells were detected in the papillary layer of the separated dermis. Interestingly, after wounding, nearly no infection of the epidermis was observed via the skin surface. However, if the wounding of the skin samples led to breaks through the dermis, HSV-1 infected mainly keratinocytes via the wounded dermis. The application of latex beads revealed only occasional entry via the wounded dermis, however, facilitated penetration via the wounded skin surface. Thus, we suggest that the wounded human skin surface allows particle penetration but still provides barriers that prevent HSV 1 invasion.

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Qualitative Differences in Capsidless L-Particles Released as a By-Product of Bovine Herpesvirus 1 and Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Infections

Journal of Virology ◽

10.1128/jvi.01259-18 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 92 (22) ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Tiffany Russell ◽

Ben Bleasdale ◽

Michael Hollinshead ◽

Gillian Elliott

Keyword(s):

Herpes Simplex Virus ◽

Herpes Simplex ◽

Cell Biology ◽

Bovine Herpesvirus ◽

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ◽

Bovine Herpesvirus 1 ◽

Infected Cells ◽

Herpesvirus 1 ◽

Simplex Virus ◽

Hsv 1

ABSTRACTDespite differences in the pathogenesis and host range of alphaherpesviruses, many stages of their morphogenesis are thought to be conserved. Here, an ultrastructural study of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) envelopment revealed profiles similar to those previously found for herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), with BoHV-1 capsids associating with endocytic tubules. Consistent with the similarity of their genomes and envelopment strategies, the proteomic compositions of BoHV-1 and HSV-1 virions were also comparable. However, BoHV-1 morphogenesis exhibited a diversity in envelopment events. First, heterogeneous primary envelopment profiles were readily detectable at the inner nuclear membrane of BoHV-1-infected cells. Second, the BoHV-1 progeny comprised not just full virions but also an abundance of capsidless, noninfectious light particles (L-particles) that were released from the infected cells in numbers similar to those of virions and in the absence of DNA replication. Proteomic analysis of BoHV-1 L-particles and the much less abundant HSV-1 L-particles revealed that they contained the same complement of envelope proteins as virions but showed variations in tegument content. In the case of HSV-1, the UL46 tegument protein was reproducibly found to be >6-fold enriched in HSV-1 L-particles. More strikingly, the tegument proteins UL36, UL37, UL21, and UL16 were depleted in BoHV-1 but not HSV-1 L-particles. We propose that these combined differences reflect the presence of truly segregated “inner” and “outer” teguments in BoHV-1, making it a critical system for studying the structure and process of tegumentation and envelopment.IMPORTANCEThe alphaherpesvirus family includes viruses that infect humans and animals. Hence, not only do they have a significant impact on human health, but they also have a substantial economic impact on the farming industry. While the pathogenic manifestations of the individual viruses differ from host to host, their relative genetic compositions suggest similarity at the molecular level. This study provides a side-by-side comparison of the particle outputs from the major human pathogen HSV-1 and the veterinary pathogen BoHV-1. Ultrastructural and proteomic analyses have revealed that both viruses have broadly similar morphogenesis profiles and infectious virus compositions. However, the demonstration that BoHV-1 has the capacity to generate vast numbers of capsidless enveloped particles that differ from those produced by HSV-1 in composition implies a divergence in the cell biology of these viruses that impacts our general understanding of alphaherpesvirus morphogenesis.

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