What Happened to Fortress Europe?: External Trade Policy Liberalization in the European Union

1998 ◽  
Vol 52 (1) ◽  
pp. 55-85 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brian T. Hanson
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Trade Policy ◽  
The European Union ◽  
External Trade ◽  
Single European Act ◽  
History Of ◽  
Fortress Europe ◽  
Severe Recession ◽  
National Trade ◽  
Trade Measures

In an era when many fear the breakdown of the global trading order through the emergence of relatively closed regional trading blocs, assessing the effects of European integration on external European Union trade is particularly important. Surprisingly, despite a severe recession accompanied by record levels of unemployment, a history of increasing protection under similar economic circumstances, and alarming predictions about “fortress Europe,” external trade policy in the region has liberalized in recent years. Prominent trade policy explanations emphasizing changing interest group demands or changing ideas of policymakers are inadequate to account for this significant change in trade policy. Instead, much of this liberalization can be best understood as an unforeseen consequence of the Single European Act. Completing the single market undermined the effectiveness of national trade measures and made it difficult to enact new trade barriers, thus producing a liberal bias in European policy.

1. The origins of the European Union and EU law

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elspeth Berry ◽  
Matthew J. Homewood ◽  
Barbara Bogusz
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Fundamental Rights ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Single European Act ◽  
Charter Of Fundamental Rights ◽  
History Of ◽  
Complete Series ◽  
Explanatory Text ◽  
Treaty Of Rome ◽  
The Eu

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter discusses the history of the European Union. It covers the historical rationale for the EU; the aims of the EU; the four stages of economic integration; economic and political difficulties; expansion of membership; institutional developments; legal developments; closer European integration; the Treaty of Rome (1957), the Single European Act (1986); the Treaty on European Union (1992); the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997); the Charter of Fundamental Rights; the Treaty of Nice (2001); the Treaty of Lisbon (2007); and the potential process for and impact of ‘Brexit’.

scholarly journals Traktat Lizboński a wspólnotowe wartości europejskie

2018 ◽  
pp. 249-264
Author(s):  
Maciej Banaszak
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Democratic Legitimacy ◽  
Democratic Deficit ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Negative Consequences ◽  
National Parliaments ◽  
Single European Act ◽  
General Elections ◽  
History Of ◽  
Formal Solutions

An issue raised more and more frequently in political, as well as scientific discourse in the context of the European Union, is “democratic deficit”. At the time, EU is perceived as an institution guaranteeing the preservation of democratic values in Europe and promoting them both on the continent and beyond. This article discusses both points of view, with emphasis placed on the democratic deficit aspect, measures undertaken to eliminate the negative consequences of the process, as well as the history of the concept: starting from the single European Act, through general elections to the European Parliament, and formal solutions leading to the gradual increase of EU powers. It is assumed in the article that the problem of democratic deficit has persisted in the European Union, especially since several changes were introduced to the political system of EU after The Treaty of Lisbon. As result, the key question that must be answered is whether under the provisions of the Treaty the EU will strengthen its democratic legitimacy. This article attempts to provide an answer, analyzing the role of national parliaments in the new institutional and normative reality and in the context of the democratic legitimacy deficit.

scholarly journals Regionalism and multilateralism in trade policy of the European Union

Equilibrium ◽  
2010 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 153-162
Author(s):  
Aleksandra Nacewska-Twardowska
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Trade Policy ◽  
Global Economy ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Commercial Policy ◽  
Bilateral Relations ◽  
History Of ◽  
Post War ◽  
The One ◽  
Trade Shows

Foreign trade is one of the main expressions of international cooperation in the world, which indicates the specific location of trade policy in the policy of the countries or organizations. The history of trade shows the existence of two opposite trade coordinating practices: regional and multilateral. In the post-war history, there can be seen the coexistence of both trends. An excellent example of this is the European Union, where both practice of coordination the trade policy unite. On the one hand, the Community is in itself an exception to the principle of trade liberalization on a multilateral basis, on the other hand for many years it has actively participated in the creation of a common commercial policy for all at the forum of GATT and the WTO. Common commercial policy of the Union is one of the pillars of its existence, affecting significantly the region's economic development. Therefore, in a time of crisis it is important to question how the common commercial policy is being shaped today and whether changes in the global economy affect the change in its formation? Last years point out the increasing trend of regionalism in Community. The difficulties increasing in the formation the trade policy in the WTO effects in many changes. Even enthusiastic proponents of the idea of multilateralism in trade seek for new solutions. In this situation the European Union looks of possibilities to form of the widest possible bilateral relations with other countries or organizations.

1. The origins of the European Union and EU law

2019 ◽  
pp. 1-52
Author(s):  
Elspeth Berry ◽  
Matthew J. Homewood ◽  
Barbara Bogusz
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Fundamental Rights ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Single European Act ◽  
Charter Of Fundamental Rights ◽  
History Of ◽  
Complete Series ◽  
Explanatory Text ◽  
Treaty Of Rome ◽  
The Eu

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter discusses the history of the European Union. It covers the historical rationale for the EU; the aims of the EU; the four stages of economic integration; economic and political difficulties; expansion of membership; institutional developments; legal developments; closer European integration; the Treaty of Rome (1957), the Single European Act (1986); the Treaty on European Union (1992); the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997); the Charter of Fundamental Rights; the Treaty of Nice (2001); the Treaty of Lisbon (2007); and the potential process for and impact of ‘Brexit’.

This is What Democracy Looks Like: Globalization, New Information Technology and the Trade Policy Process: Some Comparative Observations

2003 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 179-214
Author(s):  
Peter Smith ◽  
Elizabeth Smythe
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Social Movements ◽  
Trade Policy ◽  
Policy Process ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Local Networks ◽  
Nation States ◽  
New Information ◽  
The Impact ◽  
National Trade

AbstractThis article examines the process by which economic globalization and the Internet have facilitated the proliferation and mobilization of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and social movements that are challenging the negotiation of trade rules through the World Trade Organization (WTO). Our focus, however, is not on the WTO per se but on the impact that globally-articulated local networks are having on the national trade policy processes of Canada, Australia, and the European Union (EU), all members of the WTO. We discuss how local networks of NGOs and social movements are inserted into, and relate to, larger global coalitions and global information networks from which they draw support and sustenance. Finally, we compare how local institutions, processes, and histories have shaped the dialogue and interaction of NGOs with trade departments that are occurring at the level of these nation-states and the European Union.

1. From EEC to EU: a brief history of the development of the Union

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lorna Woods ◽  
Philippa Watson ◽  
Marios Costa
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
European Economic Community ◽  
Maastricht Treaty ◽  
The European Union ◽  
European Economic ◽  
Amsterdam Treaty ◽  
Single European Act ◽  
History Of ◽  
Treaty Of Rome ◽  
The Eu

This chapter, which traces the chronological history of the development of the European Economic Community (EEC) into the European Union (EU), explains that the EEC was created by the Treaty of Rome (ToR) in 1957 and discusses Treaties which amended the ToR and led to the development of the EU. These include the Single European Act in 1987, the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, the Amsterdam Treaty in 1999, the Nice Treaty in 2003 and the Lisbon Treaty in 2009. The chapter also describes the nature of the EU and theories explaining the development of the scope of its activities.

scholarly journals 1. From EEC to EU: a brief history of the development of the Union

2020 ◽  
pp. 3-23
Author(s):  
Marios Costa ◽  
Steve Peers
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Maastricht Treaty ◽  
Multilevel Governance ◽  
The European Union ◽  
European Economic ◽  
Amsterdam Treaty ◽  
Single European Act ◽  
History Of ◽  
Treaty Of Rome ◽  
The Eu

This chapter, which traces the chronological history of the development of the European Economic Community (EEC) into the European Union (EU), explains that the EEC was created by the Treaty of Rome (ToR) in 1957 and discusses Treaties which amended the ToR and led to the development of the EU. These include the Single European Act in 1987, the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, the Amsterdam Treaty in 1999, the Nice Treaty in 2003 and the Lisbon Treaty in 2009. The chapter also describes the nature of the EU and theories explaining the development of the scope of its activities. It summarises the history of the EU, including enlargement, debates over democracy, and the Brexit process, and explains the nature of the EU: supranational, intergovernmental or a form of ‘multilevel governance’?

Immigration Policy in the European Union: Still bringing up the walls for fortress Europe?

2005 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 20-31 ◽  
Author(s):  
Petra Bendel
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Immigration Policy ◽  
European Council ◽  
The European Union ◽  
New Period ◽  
Fortress Europe ◽  
Immigration And Asylum

Immigration and asylum policies in the European Union have entered into a new period. The author sums up the most important achievements and failures of the EU's efforts to create a common European asylum and immigration system, and she evaluates the new Hague Programme of the European Council (November 2004) in the light of the hitherto existing policies. She concludes that the European Council's new programme lags behind the more promising guidelines of its predecessor of Tampere.

THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs) AS INTERMEDIARIES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION DECISION TO ADOPT INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARDS: 1973–2002

2016 ◽  
Vol 43 (2) ◽  
pp. 59-127 ◽  
Author(s):  
Devrimi Kaya ◽  
Robert J. Kirsch ◽  
Klaus Henselmann
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Accounting Standards ◽  
International Accounting ◽  
International Accounting Standards ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Governmental Organizations ◽  
Non Governmental Organizations ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Many

This paper analyzes the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as intermediaries in encouraging the European Union (EU) to adopt International Accounting Standards (IAS). Our analysis begins with the 1973 founding of the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), and ends with 2002 when the binding EU regulation was approved. We document the many pathways of interaction between European supranational, governmental bodies and the IASC/IASB, as well as important regional NGOs, such as the Union Européenne des Experts Comptables, Économiques et Financiers (UEC), the Groupe d'Etudes des Experts Comptables de la Communauté Économique Européenne (Groupe d'Etudes), and their successor, the Fédération des Experts Comptables Européens (FEE). This study investigates, through personal interviews of key individuals involved in making the history of the organizations studied, and an extensive set of primary sources, how NGOs filled key roles in the process of harmonization of international accounting standards.

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