Eye Movements in the “Morris Maze” Spatial Working Memory Task Reveal Deficits in Strategic Planning

Analysis of eye movements can provide insights into processes underlying performance of cognitive tasks. We recorded eye movements in healthy participants and people with idiopathic Parkinson disease during a token foraging task based on the spatial working memory component of the widely used Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Participants selected boxes (using a mouse click) to reveal hidden tokens. Tokens were never hidden under a box where one had been found before, such that memory had to be used to guide box selections. A key measure of performance in the task is between search errors (BSEs) in which a box where a token has been found is selected again. Eye movements were found to be most commonly directed toward the next box to be clicked on, but fixations also occurred at rates higher than expected by chance on boxes farther ahead or back along the search path. Looking ahead and looking back in this way was found to correlate negatively with BSEs and was significantly reduced in patients with Parkinson disease. Refixating boxes where tokens had already been found correlated with BSEs and the severity of Parkinson disease symptoms. It is concluded that eye movements can provide an index of cognitive planning in the task. Refixations on locations where a token has been found may also provide a sensitive indicator of visuospatial memory integrity. Eye movement measures derived from the spatial working memory task may prove useful in the assessment of executive functions as well as neurological and psychiatric diseases in the future.

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Representational Pseudoneglect in an Auditory-Driven Spatial Working Memory Task

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology ◽

10.1080/17470218.2011.575948 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 64 (11) ◽

pp. 2168-2180 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Joanna L. Brooks ◽

Robert H. Logie ◽

Robert McIntosh ◽

Sergio Della Sala

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Mental Representation ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Mental Representations ◽

Memory Task ◽

Visuospatial Working Memory ◽

Verbal Descriptions ◽

The Matrix ◽

The Right ◽

Healthy Participants

Two experiments explored lateralized biases in mental representations of matrix patterns formed from aural verbal descriptions. Healthy participants listened, either monaurally or binaurally, to verbal descriptions of 6 by 3 matrix patterns and were asked to form a mental representation of each pattern. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to judge which half of the matrix, left or right, contained more filled cells and to rate the certainty of their judgement. Participants tended to judge that the left side was fuller than the right and showed significantly greater certainty when judging patterns that were fuller on the left. This tendency was particularly strong for left-ear presentation. In Experiment 2, participants conducted the same task as that in Experiment 1 but were also asked to recall the pattern for the side judged as fuller. Participants were again more certain in judging patterns that were fuller on the left—particularly for left-ear presentation—but were no more accurate in remembering the details from the left. These results suggest that the left side of the mental representation was represented more saliently but it was not remembered more accurately. We refer to this lateralized bias as “representational pseudoneglect”. Results are discussed in terms of theories of visuospatial working memory.

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Maternal depression and trajectories of child internalizing and externalizing problems: the roles of child decision making and working memory

Psychological Medicine ◽

10.1017/s0033291716003226 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 47 (6) ◽

pp. 1138-1148 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

E. Flouri ◽

A. Ruddy ◽

E. Midouhas

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Working Memory ◽

Maternal Depression ◽

Risk Taking ◽

Internalizing Problems ◽

Externalizing Problems ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Neuropsychological Test ◽

Memory Task ◽

Poor Quality

BackgroundMaternal depression may affect the emotional/behavioural outcomes of children with normal neurocognitive functioning less severely than it does those without. To guide prevention and intervention efforts, research must specify which aspects of a child's cognitive functioning both moderate the effect of maternal depression and are amenable to change. Working memory and decision making may be amenable to change and are so far unexplored as moderators of this effect.MethodOur sample was 17 160 Millennium Cohort Study children. We analysed trajectories of externalizing (conduct and hyperactivity) and internalizing (emotional and peer) problems, measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at the ages 3, 5, 7 and 11 years, using growth curve models. We characterized maternal depression, also time-varying at these ages, by a high score on the K6. Working memory was measured with the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Spatial Working Memory Task, and decision making (risk taking and quality of decision making) with the Cambridge Gambling Task, both at age 11 years.ResultsMaternal depression predicted both the level and the growth of problems. Risk taking and poor-quality decision making were related positively to externalizing and non-significantly to internalizing problems. Poor working memory was related to both problem types. Neither decision making nor working memory explained the effect of maternal depression on child internalizing/externalizing problems. Importantly, risk taking amplified the effect of maternal depression on internalizing problems, and poor working memory that on internalizing and conduct problems.ConclusionsImpaired decision making and working memory in children amplify the adverse effect of maternal depression on, particularly, internalizing problems.

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Acute anxiety and autonomic arousal induced by CO2 inhalation impairs prefrontal executive functions in healthy humans

Translational Psychiatry ◽

10.1038/s41398-019-0634-z ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

George Savulich ◽

Frank H. Hezemans ◽

Sophia van Ghesel Grothe ◽

Jessica Dafflon ◽

Norah Schulten ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Cognitive Flexibility ◽

Emotional Processing ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Neuropsychological Test ◽

Memory Task ◽

Autonomic Arousal ◽

Healthy Humans ◽

Acute Anxiety

Abstract Acute anxiety impacts cognitive performance. Inhalation of air enriched with carbon dioxide (CO2) in healthy humans provides a novel experimental model of generalised anxiety, but has not previously been used to assess cognition. We used inhalation of 7.5% CO2 to induce acute anxiety and autonomic arousal in healthy volunteers during neuropsychological tasks of cognitive flexibility, emotional processing and spatial working memory in a single-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, crossover, within-subjects study. In Experiment 1 (n = 44), participants made significantly more extra-dimensional shift errors on the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) Intra-Extra Dimensional Set Shift task under CO2 inhalation compared with ‘normal’ air. Participants also had slower latencies when responding to positive words and made significantly more omission errors for negative words on the CANTAB Affective Go/No-go task. In Experiment 2 (n = 28), participants made significantly more total errors and had poorer heuristic search strategy on the CANTAB Spatial Working Memory task. In both experiments, CO2 inhalation significantly increased negative affect; state anxiety and fear; symptoms of panic; and systolic blood pressure/heart rate. Overall, CO2 inhalation produced robust anxiogenic effects and impaired fronto-executive functions of cognitive flexibility and working memory. Effects on emotional processing suggested a mood-congruent slowing in processing speed in the absence of a negative attentional bias. State-dependent effects of anxiety on cognitive-emotional interactions in the prefrontal cortex warrant further investigation.

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LSD acutely impairs working memory, executive functions, and cognitive flexibility, but not risk-based decision-making

Psychological Medicine ◽

10.1017/s0033291719002393 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 50 (13) ◽

pp. 2255-2264 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Thomas Pokorny ◽

Patricia Duerler ◽

Erich Seifritz ◽

Franz X. Vollenweider ◽

Katrin H. Preller

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Working Memory ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Cognitive Flexibility ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Neuropsychological Test ◽

Memory Task ◽

Double Blind ◽

Receptor System

AbstractBackgroundPsychiatric and neurodegenerative illnesses are characterized by cognitive impairments, in particular deficits in working memory, decision-making, and executive functions including cognitive flexibility. However, the neuropharmacology of these cognitive functions is poorly understood. The serotonin (5-HT) 2A receptor might be a promising candidate for the modulation of cognitive processes. However, pharmacological studies investigating the role of this receptor system in humans are rare. Recent evidence demonstrates that the effects of Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are mediated via agonistic action at the 5-HT2A receptor. Yet, the effects of LSD on specific cognitive domains using standardized neuropsychological test have not been studied.MethodsWe examined the acute effects of LSD (100 µg) alone and in combination with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin (40 mg) on cognition, employing a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, within-subject design in 25 healthy participants. Executive functions, cognitive flexibility, spatial working memory, and risk-based decision-making were examined by the Intra/Extra-Dimensional shift task (IED), Spatial Working Memory task (SWM), and Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT) of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery.ResultsCompared to placebo, LSD significantly impaired executive functions, cognitive flexibility, and working memory on the IED and SWM, but did not influence the quality of decision-making and risk taking on the CGT. Pretreatment with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin normalized all LSD-induced cognitive deficits.ConclusionsThe present findings highlight the role of the 5-HT2A receptor system in executive functions and working memory and suggest that specific 5-HT2A antagonists may be relevant for improving cognitive dysfunctions in psychiatric disorders.

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LSD impairs working memory, executive functions, and cognitive flexibility, but not risk-based decision making

10.1101/532234 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Thomas Pokorny ◽

Patricia Duerler ◽

Erich Seifritz ◽

Franz X. Vollenweider ◽

Katrin H. Preller

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Working Memory ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Cognitive Flexibility ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Neuropsychological Test ◽

Memory Task ◽

Double Blind ◽

Receptor System

AbstractPsychiatric and neurodegenerative illnesses are characterized by cognitive impairments, in particular deficits in working memory, decision making, and executive functions including cognitive flexibility. However, the neuropharmacology of these cognitive functions is poorly understood. The serotonin (5-HT) 2A receptor might be a promising candidate for the modulation of cognitive processes. However, pharmacological studies investigating the role of this receptor system in humans are rare. Recent evidence demonstrates that the effects of Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are mediated via agonistic action at the 5-HT2A receptor. Yet, the effects of LSD on specific cognitive domains using standardized neuropsychological test have not been studied. Therefore, we examined the acute effects of LSD (100µg) alone and in combination with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin (40mg) on cognition, employing a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, within-subject design in 25 healthy participants. Executive functions, cognitive flexibility, spatial working memory, and risk-based decision-making were examined by the Intra/Extra-Dimensional shift task (IED), Spatial Working Memory task (SWM), and Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT) of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Compared to placebo, LSD significantly impaired executive functions, cognitive flexibility, and working memory on the IED and SWM, but did not influence quality of decision-making and risk taking on the CGT. Pretreatment with the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin normalized all LSD-induced cognitive deficits. The present findings highlight the role of the 5-HT2A receptor system in executive functions and working memory and suggest that specific 5-HT2A antagonists may be relevant for improving cognitive dysfunctions in psychiatric disorders.

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Brain hemodynamic response in Examiner–Examinee dyads during spatial short-term memory task: an fNIRS study

Experimental Brain Research ◽

10.1007/s00221-021-06073-0 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Francesco Panico ◽

Stefania De Marco ◽

Laura Sagliano ◽

Francesca D’Olimpio ◽

Dario Grossi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Brain Activity ◽

Memory Task ◽

Neural Correlates ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

The Real

AbstractThe Corsi Block-Tapping test (CBT) is a measure of spatial working memory (WM) in clinical practice, requiring an examinee to reproduce sequences of cubes tapped by an examiner. CBT implies complementary behaviors in the examiners and the examinees, as they have to attend a precise turn taking. Previous studies demonstrated that the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) is activated during CBT, but scarce evidence is available on the neural correlates of CBT in the real setting. We assessed PFC activity in dyads of examiner–examinee participants while completing the real version of CBT, during conditions of increasing and exceeding workload. This procedure allowed to investigate whether brain activity in the dyads is coordinated. Results in the examinees showed that PFC activity was higher when the workload approached or reached participants’ spatial WM span, and lower during workload conditions that were largely below or above their span. Interestingly, findings in the examiners paralleled the ones in the examinees, as examiners’ brain activity increased and decreased in a similar way as the examinees’ one. In the examiners, higher left-hemisphere activity was observed suggesting the likely activation of non-spatial WM processes. Data support a bell-shaped relationship between cognitive load and brain activity, and provide original insights on the cognitive processes activated in the examiner during CBT.

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Neuropsychological impairment in patients with major depressive disorder: the effects of feedback on task performance

Psychological Medicine ◽

10.1017/s0033291702007018 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 33 (3) ◽

pp. 455-467 ◽

Cited By ~ 177

Author(s):

F. C. MURPHY ◽

A. MICHAEL ◽

T. W. ROBBINS ◽

B. J. SAHAKIAN

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Negative Feedback ◽

Performance Feedback ◽

Visual Discrimination ◽

Negative Reinforcement ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Memory Task ◽

Depressive Illness ◽

Reversal Task ◽

Depressed Patients

Background. Recent evidence suggests that an abnormal response to performance feedback may contribute to the wide-ranging neuropsychological deficits typically associated with depressive illness. The present research sought to determine whether the inability of depressed patients to utilize performance feedback advantageously is equally true for accurate and misleading feedback.Method. Patients with major depression and matched controls completed: (1) a visual discrimination and reversal task that featured intermittent and misleading negative feedback; and (2) feedback and no-feedback versions of a computerised test of spatial working memory. In the feedback version, negative feedback was accurate, highly informative, and could be used as a mnemonic aid.Results. On the Probability Reversal task, depressed patients were impaired in their ability to maintain response set in the face of misleading negative feedback as shown by their increased tendency to switch responding to the ‘incorrect’ stimulus following negative reinforcement, relative to that of controls. Patients' ability to acquire and reverse the necessary visual discrimination was unimpaired. On the Spatial Working Memory task, depressed patients made significantly more between-search errors than controls on the most difficult trials, but their ability to use negative feedback to facilitate performance remained intact.Conclusions. The present results suggest that feedback can have different effects in different contexts. Misleading, negative feedback appears to disrupt the performance of depressed patients, whereas negative but accurate feedback does not. These findings are considered in the context of recent studies on reinforcement systems and their associated neurobiological substrates.

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Reproducibility of fMRI Results across Four Institutions Using a Spatial Working Memory Task

NeuroImage ◽

10.1006/nimg.1998.0360 ◽

1998 ◽

Vol 8 (3) ◽

pp. 249-261 ◽

Cited By ~ 158

Author(s):

B.J. Casey ◽

Jonathan D. Cohen ◽

Kathy O'Craven ◽

Richard J. Davidson ◽

William Irwin ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Memory Task

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Phenomenology of Visuo-spatial Working Memory Task Performance

10.31231/osf.io/5843r ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Aleš Oblak ◽

Anka Slana Ozimič ◽

Grega Repovš ◽

Urban Kordeš

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Cognitive Psychology ◽

Task Performance ◽

Present Article ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Memory Task ◽

Bodily Feelings ◽

Psychological Tasks

In experimental cognitive psychology, objects of inquiry have typically been operationalized with psychological tasks. If we are interested in measuring the target phenomena, we must inquire into the validity of the task; that is, to what extent does the task elicit the phenomenon in question. If we subscribe to the second view, evaluating the validity and the interpretation of the gathered data can be supplemented by understanding the experience of solving psychological tasks. The aim of the present article is to investigate how individuals experience performing a psychological task, specifically, a visuo-spatial working memory task. We present ethnographic descriptions of different ways individuals can experience the same task. We focus on aspects of experience that comprise the overall sense of experience (e.g., bodily feelings, emotional atmosphere, mood). We discuss the methodological implications of our findings and the possibility of conducting a neurophenomenology of visuo-spatial working memory.

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Declined functional connectivity of white matter during rest and working memory tasks associates with cognitive impairments in schizophrenia

10.1101/2020.05.16.20091397 ◽

2020 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Yurui Gao ◽

Muwei Li ◽

Anna S Huang ◽

Adam W Anderson ◽

Zhaohua Ding ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

White Matter ◽

Functional Connectivity ◽

Resting State ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Cognitive Impairments ◽

Memory Task ◽

Brain Network ◽

Blood Oxygenation ◽

Cerebral Peduncle

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia, characterized by cognitive impairments, arises from a disturbance of brain network. Pathological changes in white matter (WM) have been indicated as playing a role in disturbing neural connectivity in schizophrenia. However, deficits of functional connectivity (FC) in individual WM bundles in schizophrenia have never been explored; neither have cognitive correlates with those deficits. METHODS: Resting-state and spatial working memory task fMRI images were acquired on 67 healthy subjects and 84 patients with schizophrenia. The correlations in blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) signals between 46 WM and 82 gray matter regions were quantified, analyzed and compared between groups under three scenarios (i.e., resting state, retention period and entire time of a spatial working memory task). Associations of FC in WM with cognitive assessment scores were evaluated for three scenarios. RESULTS: FC deficits were significant (p<.05) in external capsule, cingulum, uncinate fasciculus, genu and body of corpus callosum under all three scenarios. Deficits were also present in the anterior limb of the internal capsule and cerebral peduncle in task scenario. Decreased FCs in specific WM bundles associated significantly (p<.05) with cognitive impairments in working memory, processing speed and/or cognitive control. CONCLUSIONS: Decreases in FC are evident in several WM bundles in patients with schizophrenia and are significantly associated with cognitive impairments during both rest and working memory tasks. Furthermore, working memory tasks expose FC deficits in more WM bundles and more cognitive associates in schizophrenia than resting state does.

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