scholarly journals Pain assessment and treatment in equines

2018 ◽  
Vol 61 (2) ◽  
pp. 134
Author(s):  
E. M. AMANITI (Ε.Μ. ΑΜΑΝΙΤΗ) ◽  
I. SAVVAS (Ι. ΣΑΒΒΑΣ) ◽  
N. DIAKAKIS (Ν. ΔΙΑΚΑΚΗΣ)
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Chronic Pain ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Acute Pain ◽  
General Anaesthetic ◽  
Peripheral Sensitization ◽  
Organ Function ◽  
Clinical Pain ◽  
Anti Inflammatory ◽  
Noxious Stimuli

Current concepts in pain on animals suggest that -at least- mammals perceive and experience pain like humans do. Pain receptors are the free nerve endings. Qualitative analysis and interpretation is done in brain cortex (somatosensory area), while nociception may be done in lower centres. Pain may be physiological or clinical. In physiological pain, short acting noxious stimuli act on nociceptors and produce pain, but without any neurophysiological modification. In clinical pain, mostly intense noxious stimuli bring alterations in neuronal physiology, in central nervous system (central sensitization), as well as in peripheral nervous system (peripheral sensitization). Eventually, pain threshold is reduced and hyperalgesia is established. Clinical pain may be inflammatory or neuropathic. According to its origin, it may be somatic (skin, bones, joints, muscles), which is acute and may be accurately localized, or visceral (from the abdominal and thoracic organs), which is blunt and diffuse. Post-operative pain mayprolong hospitalization and increase morbidity. Pain management is mandatory for humane, legal and medical reasons. The latter include elimination of side effects of catecholamine production, facilitation of healing and restoration of the animal's normal functions (diet, self-care, etc.), which in general reduce the response to stress. Moreover, organ function is improved and morbidity is reduced. As a result, peri-operative analgesia may improve health, as long as most analgesic techniques improve organ function post-operatively. The first indication of pain in animals is behavioural alteration. In chronic pain, metabolic disturbances may alsooccur. In normal equines, it seems that there are variations among individuals. In general, it is easier to diagnose an acute abdominal pain than a chronic pain in joints, tendons or bones. In acute pain, the horse develops special facial expression. The animal looksbackwards and kicks the ground. Peripheral somatic pain may produce acute signs. Pain is definitely treated only after diagnosing itscause. However, it may also be treated symptomatically with analgesics and local denervations. Additionally, trans-cutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) of peripheral nerves or other sights of central nervous system may alleviate pain (electroanalgesia). Finally,acupuncture maybe applied. Among the analgesic drugs, in equines, opioids (morphine, methadone, pethidine, butorphanile) produce very good analgesia and mild sedation. Respiratory and intestinal contractility depression is common side effect. Central nervous system excitations maybe seen, especially after morphine administration. Local anaesthetics produce excellent analgesia and maybe used pre- (pre-emptive analgesia), intra- (to reduce general anaesthetic dose rates) and post-operatively. a2-Adrenergic agonists produce analgesia, mainly visceral. They are very good analgesics in cases of colics, whereas their sedative effects reduce the incidence of self-trauma. Their major disadvantage is cardiovascular depression. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have very good anti-inflammatory properties. They are used in cases of acute pain, traumatic or surgical, as well as in chronic pain.

Therapy-related issues: central nervous system

2012 ◽  
Author(s):  
Philip Wiffen ◽  
Marc Mitchell ◽  
Melanie Snelling ◽  
Nicola Stoner
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Chronic Pain ◽  
Palliative Care ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Cancer Pain ◽  
Acute Pain ◽  
International Association ◽  
System P

Pain: a definition 396Assessment of pain 398Acute pain: incidence 401Acute pain 402Treating cancer pain 404Equianalgesic doses for opioids 406Compatibility of drugs in pain and palliative care 407Chronic pain 408The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as ‘...

scholarly journals Chronic Pain in the Elderly: Mechanisms and Distinctive Features

Biomolecules ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (8) ◽  
pp. 1256
Author(s):  
Andrea Tinnirello ◽  
Silvia Mazzoleni ◽  
Carola Santi
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Chronic Pain ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Pain Sensitivity ◽  
The Elderly ◽  
Elderly Subjects ◽  
Peripheral Sensitization ◽  
Adequate Treatment ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Pain In The Elderly

Background: Chronic pain is a major issue affecting more than 50% of the older population and up to 80% of nursing homes residents. Research on pain in the elderly focuses mainly on the development of clinical tools to assess pain in patients with dementia and cognitive impairment or on the efficacy and tolerability of medications. In this review, we searched for evidence of specific pain mechanisms or modifications in pain signals processing either at the cellular level or in the central nervous system. Methods: Narrative review. Results: Investigation on pain sensitivity led to conflicting results, with some studies indicating a modest decrease in age-related pain sensitivity, while other researchers found a reduced pain threshold for pressure stimuli. Areas of the brain involved in pain perception and analgesia are susceptible to pathological changes such as gliosis and neuronal death and the effectiveness of descending pain inhibitory mechanisms, particularly their endogenous opioid component, also appears to deteriorate with advancing age. Hyperalgesia is more common at older age and recovery from peripheral nerve injury appears to be delayed. In addition, peripheral nociceptors may contribute minimally to pain sensation at either acute or chronic time points in aged populations. Conclusions: Elderly subjects appear to be more susceptible to prolonged pain development, and medications acting on peripheral sensitization are less efficient. Pathologic changes in the central nervous system are responsible for different pain processing and response to treatment. Specific guidelines focusing on specific pathophysiological changes in the elderly are needed to ensure adequate treatment of chronic pain conditions.

scholarly journals Beyond the lesion site: minocycline augments inflammation and anxiety-like behavior following SCI in rats through action on the gut microbiota

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Emma K. A. Schmidt ◽  
Pamela J. F. Raposo ◽  
Abel Torres-Espin ◽  
Keith K. Fenrich ◽  
Karim Fouad
Keyword(s):  
Spinal Cord ◽  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Spinal Cord Injury ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Microglial Activation ◽  
Motor Recovery ◽  
Long Term Effects ◽  
Cord Injury ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Abstract Background Minocycline is a clinically available synthetic tetracycline derivative with anti-inflammatory and antibiotic properties. The majority of studies show that minocycline can reduce tissue damage and improve functional recovery following central nervous system injuries, mainly attributed to the drug’s direct anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and neuroprotective properties. Surprisingly the consequences of minocycline’s antibiotic (i.e., antibacterial) effects on the gut microbiota and systemic immune response after spinal cord injury have largely been ignored despite their links to changes in mental health and immune suppression. Methods Here, we sought to determine minocycline’s effect on spinal cord injury-induced changes in the microbiota-immune axis using a cervical contusion injury in female Lewis rats. We investigated a group that received minocycline following spinal cord injury (immediately after injury for 7 days), an untreated spinal cord injury group, an untreated uninjured group, and an uninjured group that received minocycline. Plasma levels of cytokines/chemokines and fecal microbiota composition (using 16s rRNA sequencing) were monitored for 4 weeks following spinal cord injury as measures of the microbiota-immune axis. Additionally, motor recovery and anxiety-like behavior were assessed throughout the study, and microglial activation was analyzed immediately rostral to, caudal to, and at the lesion epicenter. Results We found that minocycline had a profound acute effect on the microbiota diversity and composition, which was paralleled by the subsequent normalization of spinal cord injury-induced suppression of cytokines/chemokines. Importantly, gut dysbiosis following spinal cord injury has been linked to the development of anxiety-like behavior, which was also decreased by minocycline. Furthermore, although minocycline attenuated spinal cord injury-induced microglial activation, it did not affect the lesion size or promote measurable motor recovery. Conclusion We show that minocycline’s microbiota effects precede its long-term effects on systemic cytokines and chemokines following spinal cord injury. These results provide an exciting new target of minocycline as a therapeutic for central nervous system diseases and injuries.

Pain processing in the thalamocortical system

e-Neuroforum ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 23 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexander Groh ◽  
Rebecca Mease ◽  
Patrik Krieger
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Animal Models ◽  
Signaling Pathways ◽  
Acute Pain ◽  
Negative Emotion ◽  
Pain Processing ◽  
Pathological Pain ◽  
Thalamocortical System ◽  
Noxious Stimuli ◽  
Lines Of Evidence

AbstractThe transduction of painful stimuli into the experience of pain involves several peripheral and central signaling pathways of the nervous system. The organization of these pathways parallels the main functions of pain: the assessment of noxious stimuli (where, what, how strong), and the negative emotion of unpleasantness. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that the thalamocortical (TC) system, which interprets ascending pain signals, has two main pathways which support these functions. We discuss the structural and functional findings that support the view that the lateral TC pathway is involved in discriminative assessment of pain, while the medial TC pathway gives rise to aversive emotions associated with pain. Our review focuses on acute pain, but we also discuss putative TC maladaptations in humans and animal models of pain that are thought to underlie pathological pain sensations.

AN UPDATE ON THE SYNTHESIS OF BENZOXAZOLES

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (10) ◽  
pp. 48 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jyothi M ◽  
Ramchander Merugu
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Biological Activity ◽  
Biological Activities ◽  
Starting Material ◽  
Bioactive Molecules ◽  
Living Systems ◽  
Inflammatory Activity ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Benzoxazoles being structurally similar to bases adenine and guanine interact with biomolecules present in living systems. These compounds possess antimicrobial, central nervous system activities, antihyperglycemic potentiating activity, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activity. It can also be used as starting material for other bioactive molecules. Modifications in structure and the biological profiles of new generations of benzoxazoles were found to be more potent with enhanced biological activity. Considering all these, we have prepared this review and discussed the synthesis and biological activities of benzoxazoles.

scholarly journals Lavandulae aetheroleum Oil: A Review on Phytochemical Screening, Medicinal Applications, and Pharmacological Effects

2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (3) ◽  
pp. 9836-9847
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Clinical Pharmacology ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Chemical Constituents ◽  
Cardiovascular Effects ◽  
Pharmacological Effects ◽  
Lavandula Angustifolia ◽  
Experimental Pharmacology ◽  
Central Nervous System Depressant ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Lavandulae aetheroleum, the oil, was obtained by vapor condensation from the flower of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. or Lavandula intermedia Loisel (Lamiaceae) plant. Other names of Lavandulae aetheroleum oil are Al birri, common or English lavender. The Lavandula angustifolia Mill. or Lavandula intermedia Loisel plant is spreading in the Mediterranean, southern Europe, Bulgaria, Russia, and USA. The Lavandula angustifolia Mill. or Lavandula intermedia Loisel plant, is an odor shrub with 1-2 m in height. The oil is a clear, colorless, or pale yellow. The gas chromatography studies reported the following percentage of the major chemical constituents in the oil: linalyl acetate (25-46%), linalool (20-45%), terpinen-4-ol (1.2-6.0%), lavendulyl acetate (> 1.0%), 1,8-cineole (1,8-cineol, cineol, cineole, eucalyptol) (< 2.5%), 3-octanone (< 2.5%), camphor (< 1.2%), limonene (< 1.0%), and α-terpineol (< 2.0%). Medicinal applications of the oil include the treatment of restlessness, anxiety, cardiovascular disorders, insomnia, and gastrointestinal disorders, burns, diarrhea, headache, sore throats, and wounds. Pharmacological effects include experimental and clinical pharmacology. Experimental pharmacology includes anesthetic, anticonvulsant, sedative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, antispasmodic, central nervous system depressant effects. Clinical pharmacology includes anxiolytic, analgesic, and cardiovascular effects. The oil dose by inhalation = 0.06-0.2 ml/ 3 times/day while oil dose internally = 1-4 drops approximately 20-80 mg on a sugar cube per day. In conclusion, Lavandulae aetheroleum oil had an anesthetic, anticonvulsant, sedative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, antispasmodic, central nervous system depressant, anxiolytic, analgesic, and cardiovascular effects.

scholarly journals Catastrophizing Interferes with Cognitive Modulation of Pain in Women with Fibromyalgia

Pain Medicine ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 19 (12) ◽  
pp. 2408-2422 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura D Ellingson ◽  
Aaron J Stegner ◽  
Isaac J Schwabacher ◽  
Jacob B Lindheimer ◽  
Dane B Cook
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Chronic Pain ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Pain Catastrophizing ◽  
Pain Modulation ◽  
Critical Function ◽  
Sensory Stimuli ◽  
Brain Responses ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Pain Ratings

Abstract Background Pain modulation is a critical function of the nociceptive system that includes the ability to engage descending pain control systems to maintain a functional balance between facilitation and inhibition of incoming sensory stimuli. Dysfunctional pain modulation is associated with increased risk for chronic pain and is characteristic of fibromyalgia (FM). Catastrophizing is also common in FM. However, its influence on pain modulation is poorly understood. Objective To determine the role of catastrophizing on central nervous system processing during pain modulation in FM via examining brain responses and pain sensitivity during an attention-distraction paradigm. Methods Twenty FM patients and 18 healthy controls (CO) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while receiving pain stimuli, administered alone and during distracting cognitive tasks. Pain ratings were assessed after each stimulus. Catastrophizing was assessed with the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS). Results The ability to modulate pain during distraction varied among FM patients and was associated with catastrophizing. This was demonstrated by significant positive relationships between PCS scores and pain ratings (P < 0.05) and brain responses in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (P < 0.01). Relationships between catastrophizing and pain modulation did not differ between FM and CO (P > 0.05). Conclusions FM patients with higher levels of catastrophizing were less able to distract themselves from pain, indicative of catastrophizing-related impairments in pain modulation. These results suggest that the tendency to catastrophize interacts with attention-resource allocation and may represent a mechanism of chronic pain exacerbation and/or maintenance. Reducing catastrophizing may improve FM symptoms via improving central nervous system regulation of pain.

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